Class notes
Roman Law
- Course
- Institution
Comprehensive and detailed notes covering the entirety of the Roman Law module of the Law (LLB) degree at University College London (UCL).
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Sources(of(law!!
I.(Introduction!
!
Monarchy((eighth(century(BC(–(510(BC)!
!
•! The!origins!of!Rome.!
o! Founding!of!Rome!has!traditionally!been!dated!as!753!BC.!
o! Apparently,!the!legendary!Trojan!hero!Aeneas!escaped!with!a!band!of!survivors!
following!the!defeat!of!Troy!by!the!Greeks!in!the!Trojan!War.!
!! On!reaching!Italy,!he!and!his!descendants!established!settlements!there.!
!! His!descendants,!Romulus!and!Remus,!were!said!to!have!founded!
Rome.!
•! The!kings.!
o! Said!to!have!been!seven!kings!of!Rome.!
!! However,!an!average!reign!of!35!years!seems!too!long!for!that!era.!
o! Rome!acquired!some!important!institutions!during!this!period.!
!! The!Senate.!
•! Established!under!Romulus.!
•! Consultative!body!of!elders!and!eminent!citizens.!
!! The!three!‘tribes’.!
•! Divided!by!Romulus.!
•! Each!consisted!of!10!curiae!(administrative!and!political!units!
possessing!voting!powers)!that!formed!a!primitive!assembly,!the!
comitia*curiata.!
o! Primary!function!was!to!confirm!the!King!in!office!and!to!
vest!authority!in!him.!
!! Religion.!
•! Numa!Pompilus!(succeeded!Romulus)!organised!the!religious!
life!of!Rome.!
o! Ritualistic!taking!of!vows!to!the!gods!became!a!central!
feature!of!daily!life.!
o! The!paterfamilias!was!entrusted!with!the!performance!of!
daily!acts!of!family!worship.!
•! Etruscan!influence.!
o! Tarquinius!Priscus,!Tarquinius!Superbus!(and!potentially!Servius!Tullius)!were!
Etruscans.!
!! Sophisticated,!wellWorganised,!energetic,!outwardWlooking,!expansionist!
civilisation.!
th
!! In!the!7 !century!BC,!an!Etruscan!migration!occurred,!leading!to!a!
peaceful!fusion!between!the!immigrants!and!the!native!Romans.!
•! Rome!provided!a!convenient!point!for!crossing!the!Tiber!–!
considered!vital!to!the!Etruscans’!control!of!the!area!between!
Rome!and!the!Bay!of!Naples.!
o! Undertook!an!ambitious!programme!of!public!works!and!
building!–!paved!streets,!temples,!shrines,!city!walls,!
drainage!system,!etc.!
!! Rome!became!a!city.!
!! Administrative!and!political!achievements.!
th
•! Comitia*centuriata!established!in!the!6 !century!BC.!
o! Assembly!in!which!the!citizen!body!was!divided!into!
centuries!along!military!lines.!
!! Attempt!to!ensure!that!the!army!had!some!say!in!
the!affairs!of!the!State.!
!! Assembly!had!important!functions,!including!the!
appointment!of!highWranking!officers!in!the!army!
–!thus!it!had!a!crucial!role!in!the!affairs!of!Rome.!
!! Rome!became!the!dominant!force!in!the!area!through!highWhanded!
diplomacy!and!wellWtimed!military!conquest.!
1
, •! Ring!of!neighbouring!towns!was!colonised!to!provide!a!protective!
shield!for!Rome.!
•! By!510!BC,!Roman!territory!covered!300W400!sq!miles.!
•! The!events!of!510!BC.!
o! Tarquinius!Superbus!lost!the!support!of!the!people.!
!! Aristocratic!revolt!against!him.!
o! Led!to!the!abolition!of!the!monarchy.!
!! Suggests!that!the!Romans!had!wearied!of!rule!by!kings.!
!
Republic((509(–(27(BC)!
!
•! Constitutional!and!political!developments.!
o! The!magistrates.!
!! Hierarchy!of!magistrates!established.!
•! Consuls.!
o! Two!supreme!magistrates,!who!took!kingly!power!from!
the!abolition!of!the!monarchy.!
o! Supposed!to!consult!each!other!and!govern!in!tandem.!
!! Could!veto!each!other’s!proposals!(intended!to!
prevent!tyranny).!
o! Appointed!by!the!comitia*centuriata!(they!were!the!
commanders!of!the!army).!
!! Ratification!by!the!Senate.!
o! Appointment!lasted!for!a!year.!
o! Ultimate!power!lay!with!them.!
!! Though!there!was!a!provision!in!the!constitution!
for!oneWman!rule!during!times!of!national!crisis.!
•! Either!consul!could!nominate!the!
appointment!of!a!dictator!with!supreme!
power,!subject!to!the!Senate’s!
ratification.!
•! Praetors.!
o! Created!in!367!BC!with!the!aim!of!reducing!the!legal!
jurisdiction!of!the!consuls.!
o! Appointed!by!the!comitia*centuriata.!
o! Became!the!chief!administrators!of!the!Roman!legal!
system!(like!modern!ministers!of!justice).!
o! Management!of!the!court!system,!rather!than!judging.!
•! Quaestors.!
o! Elected!by!the!comitia*tributa.!
o! Counterparts!of!the!praetors!in!financial!matters,!
assisting!the!consuls!in!the!fiscal!administration!of!
Rome.!
!! Also!had!other!duties,!such!as!assisting!the!
consuls!in!the!administration!of!criminal!
jurisdiction.!
o! Became!the!principal!law!officers!of!the!State!in!the!later!
Empire,!following!the!decline!in!the!importance!of!the!
praetors.!
•! Censors.!
o! 443!BC.!
o! Appointed!by!the!comitia*centuriata!to!relieve!the!consuls!
of!their!duty!of!compiling!a!census.!
!! Romans!were!classified!by!wealth,!tribal!
background,!and!military!ranking.!
!! Vital!in!determining!eligibility!to!vote,!to!serve!in!
the!legions,!liability!to!taxation,!etc.!
!! Had!the!power!to!place!a!nota!(mark!of!disgrace)!
against!the!name!of!any!person!suspected!of!
misconduct.!
2
, •! Considerable!power.!
!! Census!was!compiled!every!4/5!years.!
•! Took!about!18!months!(exception!to!1!
year!magistracy).!
o! Acquired!the!function!of!appointing!members!of!the!
Senate.!
!! In!theory!very!important,!but!in!practice!came!to!
be!limited!to!the!power!to!exclude!from!the!
Senate.!
o! Fiscal!duties.!
!! Collection!of!revenue!for!the!treasury,!spending!
it!on!contracts!involving!the!State,!etc.!
•! Tribunes.!
o! Elected!to!represent!the!plebeian!body!of!the!people.!
o! Had!to!be!plebeians!themselves.!
o! Presided!over!the!concilium*plebis.!
o! Members!of!the!Senate,!and!had!the!power!to!convene!
it.!
o! Had!the!right!to!veto!the!acts!of!other!magistrates.!
o! From!449!BC,!became!inviolable.!
!! Anyone!who!attacked!the!tribunes!or!hindered!
their!duties!would!be!outlawed!by!the!concilium*
plebis.!
•! Aediles.!
o! Exercised!‘care’!over!the!city!and!its!inhabitants.!
!! Ensuring!an!adequate!supply!of!water!and!corn,!
maintaining!public!roads!and!buildings,!
controlling!trade,!arranging!public!games,!etc.!
!! Administrative!functioning!of!the!city.!
o! Class!warfare:!the!struggle!of!the!orders.!
!! Plebeian!discontent.!
•! Main!political!grievance!was!that!the!magistracy!was!entirely!in!
the!hands!of!the!patricians!to!start!with.!
•! Considerable!anxiety!about!the!exercise!of!consular!power!and!
uncertainty!about!its!extent.!
•! Plebeian!assembly’s!plebiscita!(its!resolutions)!were!not!
considered!to!be!binding!on!the!whole!people.!
•! Draconian!law!of!debt!(man!who!was!unable!to!pay!his!debts!
could!be!seized!by!his!creditor!and!sold!as!a!slave,!or!even!
executed).!
!! Concessions.!
•! General!trend!towards!a!gradual!improvement!in!the!position!of!
the!plebeians.!
•! Concessions!forced!mainly!by!the!threat!of!secession.!
o! Plebeians!would!leave!the!city!and!encamp!in!the!
surrounding!hills!until!the!patricians!agreed!to!their!
demands.!
o! Occasionally!threatened!to!establish!a!rival!city.!
o! Threats!were!too!serious!to!ignore!–!prompt!
concessions.!
•! Allowed!all!Roman!citizens!the!right!of!appeal!to!the!people!
against!a!death!sentence!imposed!by!a!magistrate.!
•! Plebeians!were!allowed!magistrates!of!their!own,!494!BC.!
•! Plebeians!secured!the!publication!of!the!Twelve!Tables!(Rome’s!
first!code!of!law)!to!prevent!the!law!being!administered!arbitrarily,!
451W450!BC.!
•! Plebiscita!to!bind!all!citizens!(though!patrician!ratification!was!
necessary).!
3
, o! One!of!the!earliest!removed!the!ban!on!intermarriage!
between!the!orders.!
•! Plebeians!became!eligible!for!the!office!of!quaestor,!421!BC.!
•! The!leges*Liciniae*Sextiae!(some!legislation)!were!enacted,!367!
BC.!
o! One!of!the!consuls!had!to!be!a!plebeian.!
o! There!should!be!a!restriction!on!the!maximum!amount!of!
public!land!a!citizen!could!hold.!
o! Colleges!of!priests!should!be!opened!to!plebeians.!
o! Military!tribunate!abolished.!
o! Enslavement!or!execution!of!debtors!was!eventually!
ended!by!the!lex*Poetelia,!326!BC.!
•! The!lex*Hortensia,!287!BC.!
o! Removed!the!need!for!patrician!ratification!of!plebiscita.!
o! Thus!the!plebeian!assembly!was!to!become!the!most!
politically!powerful!and!important!of!the!Republican!
legislative!assemblies.!
•! Territorial!expansion.!
o! Within!Italy.!
!! Latin!League!defeated!the!Etruscans,!505!BC.!
!! Rome!fought!and!defeated!the!Latin!States!at!Lake!Regillus,!496!BC.!
!! Progress!through!partnership.!
•! Extended!citizenship,!rights!of!intermarriage,!political!
participation,!etc.!
!! Sacked!and!defeated!by!tribes!from!Gaul,!386!BC.!
!! Survived,!expanded,!etc.!throughout!Italy.!
•! Established!colonies!all!over!Italy.!
!! Eventually!became!much!less!generous!with!citizenship.!
•! Rome’s!Italian!allies!rebelled!due!to!the!issue!of!citizenship,!91!
BC.!
o! Crushed!two!years!later.!
o! However,!Rome!did!confer!its!citizenship!throughout!
Italy.!
!! Rome!and!Italy!now!synonymous.!
o! Beyond!Italy.!
!! Carthage.!
•! Relations!deteriorated!rapidly!once!Rome!established!control!
over!the!southern!ports!(Carthaginians!were!a!proud!trading!
people).!
•! Went!to!war!for!Sicily.!
o! First!Punic!War!(264!–!241!BC).!
!! Tough!but!victorious!war.!
o! Second,!shorter!war!(146!BC).!
!! Defeated!Carthage!for!good.!
!! Eastern!Mediterranean.!
•! Realpolitik!throughout!the!eastern!Mediterranean.!
•! Took!most!if!it!by!63!BC.!
!! The!Gauls.!
•! Defeated!by!Caesar,!52!BC.!
•! The!collapse!of!the!Republic.!
o! The!Gracchi!brothers.!
!! Tiberius!Gracchus.!
•! Attempted!to!take!back!possessed!land!to!give!it!back!to!farmerW
soldiers.!
o! Put!it!to!the!plebeian!assembly!for!enactment!without!
consulting!the!Senate!(many!wealthy!landWowners).!
!! Murdered.!
!! Gaius!Gracchus.!
•! Even!more!radical.!
4
, •!Hardly!any!aspect!of!Roman!government!was!left!untouched.!
•!Excluded!senators!from!hearing!cases!of!provincial!
mismanagement.!
o! Ignored!the!Senate,!took!his!proposals!straight!to!the!
plebeian!assembly.!
!! Murdered.!
!! Exposed!a!flaw!in!the!Republican!constitution.!
•! A!man!with!ideas,!courage,!and!a!charismatic!personality!could!
appeal!directly!to!the!people!as!its!‘protector’.!
o! The!Senate!was!thus!an!impotent!bystander.!
o! Armies!and!generals.!
!! Marius.!
•! Highly!successful!general,!exploited!hostility!towards!the!Senate,!
and!used!the!army!to!sweep!away!political!opposition.!
!! Sulla.!
•! Not!averse!to!using!his!army!against!fellow!Romans!in!the!
pursuit!of!personal!ambition.!
•! Also!a!reformer.!
o! Reformed!the!criminal!process!W!jury!courts!for!some!
crimes.!
o! Doubled!the!size!of!the!Senate.!
!! Pompey.!
•! Made!an!alliance!with!Caesar!to!overcome!political!opposition.!
o! Rift!eventually!developed!between!them.!
!! Caesar.!
•! Crossed!the!river!Rubicon!with!his!army,!49!BC.!
o! Ignored!a!decree!that!he!was!to!resume!the!status!of!a!
private!citizen!on!his!return.!
o! Virtual!declaration!of!civil!war.!
•! Pompey!fled!to!Egypt!and!was!murdered,!48!BC.!
•! Restored!order,!ruled!extremely!well.!
•! Eventually!hated!by!elements!of!the!senatorial!aristocracy!for!his!
autocratic!ways!and!disregard!of!the!constitution.!
•! Assassinated,!44!BC.!
!! Octavian!(Augustus).!
•! Feud!with!Mark!Antony.!
o! Made!a!triumvirate!with!Lepidus!to!take!revenge!on!
those!implicated!in!Caesar’s!murder.!
o! Antony!married!Octavian’s!sister.!
o! Went!to!Egypt,!fell!in!love!with!Cleopatra.!
o! Civil!war!with!Octavian.!
o! Octavian!emerged!triumphant.!
!
Empire((27(BC(–(AD(565)!
!
•! Augustus!and!the!principate.!
o! Constitutional!developments.!
!! Acted!constitutionally!(or!at!least!gave!that!impression).!
!! Eventually,!all!power!was!vested!in!him.!
o! The!Augustan!age.!
!! Peace,!stability,!sound!administration,!good!government.!
!! Art,!literature,!poetry,!etc.!
!! Died!in!AD!14.!
•! The!first!and!second!centuries!AD.!
o! Constitutional!developments.!
!! Republican!institutions’!power!waned.!
•! By!AD!100,!they!were!ceasing!to!have!independent!existence.!
!! Senate!became!a!mouthpiece!of!the!Emperor.!
o! The!role!of!the!army.!
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