Test Bank for Psychology 2e, 2nd Edition by Spielman, 9781680923278, Covering Chapters 1-16 | Includes Rationales
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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
AND TECHNOLOGY
Chapter 1. Introduction to Psychology
1.1 What is Psychology?
Psychology = scientific study of mind and behavior
Scientific method researcher with a question will propose a hypothesis that fits in the
context of a scientific theory (= a broad explanation or group of explanations for some aspect
of the natural world that is consistently supported by evidence over time) then the researcher
makes observations or carries out an experiment to test the validity of the hypothesis
Scientists test that what is perceivable and measurable (empirical)
Empirical method = based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method
based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities
Psychology is a natural and social science
1.2 History of Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt:
“First” psychologist to view psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience
Goal of psychology to identify components of consciousness and how those
components combined to result in our experience
Introspection = a process by which someone examines their own conscious
experience as objectively as possible (making the human mind like any other aspect
of nature that a scientist observed)
Structuralism = the focus on the content of mental processes rather than their
function
William James psychology’s purpose is to study the function of behavior in the world =
functionalism focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its
environment
Freud psychoanalytic theory = focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well
as early childhood experiences (which was crucial to the successful resolution for disorders
with no physical cause)
Gestalt psychology = although a sensory experience can be broken down into individual
part, how those parts relate to each other as a whole is often what the individual responds to
in perception (Gestalt = “whole”)
Pavlov conditioned reflex (with the dog)
Watson focused on observable behavior and tried to bring that behavior under control
Behaviorism = focus on observing and controlling behavior (by commonly using animals
under the assumption that what was learned using animal models could, to some degree, be
applied t human behavior)
,Skinner focused on how behavior was affected by its consequences, such as
reinforcement and punishment being major factors in driving behavior
Humanism = a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is
innate to all humans
Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy
of humans needs in motivating behavior
Carl Rogers client-centered therapy = a
therapeutic technique in helping clients deal
with problematic issues in which the client
takes the lead role, therapists needed to
display: unconditional positive regard,
genuineness and empathy
The cognitive revolution = revived interest in the mind as a focus of scientific inquiry
(because of the emerging of new disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience and
computer science)
Cognitive sciences = the interdisciplinary approach, caused by the cooperation of American
and European psychologists with scientists in other fields
Women, members of ethnic minorities and individuals with sexual orientations other than
straight had difficulties entering the field of psychology so they had little influence on what
was studied
Cultural issue certain populations (WEIRD) have been over-studied and the results of
these studies have been applied to other populations
Multicultural psychologists develop theories and conduct research with diverse
populations (typically within one country)
Cross-cultural psychologists compare populations across countries
1.3 Contemporary Psychology
American Psychological Association (APA) = a professional organization representing
psychologists in the United States and its mission is to advance and disseminate
psychological knowledge for the betterment of people reflects the diversity of
contemporary psychology
Association for Psychological Science (APS) = a organization that seeks to advance the
scientific orientation of psychology resulted from disagreements between the scientific
and clinical branches within the APA
Biopsychology = explores how our biology influences our behavior try to understand
how the structure and function of the nervous system is related to behavior (neuroscience)
Evolutionary psychology = seeks to study the ultimate biological causes to behavior, to
the extent that a behavior is impacted by genetics and that a behavior will demonstrate
adaption to its surroundings drawbacks:
It is extraordinarily difficult to proof that behavior is in some part genetic and not
entirely cultural
The traits that we possess now evolved under environmental and social conditions
far back in human history and we have poor understanding of what these conditions
were
,Cognitive psychology = focuses on studying cognitions or thoughts and their relationship
to our experiences and our actions
Development psychology = the scientific study of development across a lifespan
interest in processes related to physical, cognitive and social maturation
Personality psychology = focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each
individual unique nowadays it focuses on identifying and measuring personality traits and
determining how these traits interact in a particular context to determine how a person will
behave in any given situation
Personality traits = relatively consistent patterns of thought and behavior, ‘Big Five”:
Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
Social psychology = focuses on how we interact and relate to others
Industrial-Organizational psychology = subfield that applies psychological theories,
principles and research findings in industrial and organizational settings I-O psychologists
are often involved in issues related to personnel management, organizational structure and
workplace environment
Health psychology = focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological,
psychological and sociocultural factors (biopsychosocial model) psychologists are
interested in helping individuals achieve better health through public policy, education,
intervention and research
Sport and exercise psychology = focuses on the psychological aspects of sport
performance, including motivation and performance anxiety and the effects of sport on
mental and emotional wellbeing
Clinical psychology = focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders
and other problematic patterns of behavior
Forensic psychology = branch of psychology that deals questions of psychology as they
arise in the context of the justice system
1.4 Careers in Psychology
PhD = a doctor of philosophy (=many different disciplinary perspectives that would be
housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences) degree to earn a PhD usually
you must complete a dissertation = a long research paper
PsyD = a doctor of psychology degree (popular among individuals interested in pursuing
careers in clinical psychology)
Chapter 2. Psychological Research
2.1 Why is Research Important?
Scientific knowledge empirical = it is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that van be
observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing
It is important to think critically about the information we come across
Research makes the difference between facts and opinions
Facts = observable realities
Opinions = personal judgements, conclusions or attitudes that may or may not be
accurate
, Notable researchers:
Margaret Floy Washburn first woman to receive a PhD in psychology, focused on
animal behavior and cognition
Mary Whiton Calkins opposed the behaviorist movement
Francis Sumner first African American to receive a PhD in psychology, focused on
issues related to psychoanalysis
Inez Beverly Prosser first African American woman to receive a PhD in
psychology
Deductive reasoning = ideas are tested in the real world (experimental research)
Inductive reasoning = real-world observations lead to new ideas (case studies)
Theory = well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena
Hypothesis = a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct it
is also falsifiable (=capable of being shown to be incorrect)
2.2 Approaches to Research
Correlational data cannot be used to make claims about cause-and-effect relationships
only way to claim a relationship is to perform an experiment
Generalizing = the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger
segments of society
Observational research scientists are conducting a clinical or case study when they
focus on one person or just a few individuals
Pro: provides enormous amounts of information
Con: since the cases are so specific, the potential to apply what’s learned to the
average person may be very limited
Naturalistic observation = observing behavior in its natural setting critical that the
observer be as unobtrusive and as inconspicuous as possible
Pro: the (ecological) validity of information collected in a natural setting is really high,
an enhanced ability to generalize the findings
Con: difficult to set up and control and requires significant investments of time,
money and a good dose of luck
Con: observer bias = people who act as observers are often closely involved in the
research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research
goal/ expectations inter-rater reliability = a measure of reliability that assesses
the consistency of observations by different observers
Surveys = lists of questions to be answered by research participants
Sample = a subset of individuals selected from a population (where researchers are
interested in) scientists analyze the sample and seek to generalize their findings to
the population
Measures of central tendency:
1. Mode = the most frequently occurring response
2. Median = lies at the middle of a given data set
3. Mean = the arithmetic average of all data points
Pro: it is easy to collect data from a large number of people better to reflect the
actual diversity of the population, thus allowing better generalizability
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