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Summary Relationships - AQA Psychology
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RelationshipsEvolutionary Explanations for Partner Preferences
THE PREMISE OF EVOLUTION
Darwin’s theory of evolution is based on two main premises:
● Survival
● Reproduction
Essentially, we all strive to find a suitable partner to produce offspring. Men and women look for
specific traits and characteristics in a potential partner. This is known as sexual selection.
Sexual Selection in animals is highly evident. Whether it is the brightest colours, or the biggest antlers
or the most attractive dance, animals attract mates in many similar ways to humans.
SPERM AND EGGS
It is important to highlight the evolutionary differences between men and women.
Men can produce roughly 100 million sperm in a single ejaculation. Additionally this can be repeated
multiple times a day, so each ejaculation does not cost the men too much in terms of reproductive
materials.
For a man to increase his chances of reproductive success, he is physically (but not socially) able to
have sex with multiple partners.
On the other hand, women produce one egg a month. Additionally, there are particular times in the
month-long cycle where she is more fertile. This represents quite an investment in reproduction.
The woman has roughly 300 eggs over the course of her reproductive lifetime of 25 years. Men can
reproduce for the majority of their lives. Therefore, it could be argued that women must be more
selective in their choice of partners.
SEXUAL SELECTION
Intra-sexual selection - members of one sex (usually male) compete for access to the other sex
(usually female) leading to male-female dimorphism – whereby other sexual characteristics can be
increased e.g. broad shoulders and size.
Inter-sexual selection - one sex (usually female) chooses from a group of prospective mates (usually
male) according to attractiveness.
Anisogamy - different sex cells lead to different sexual behaviours.
Sexual traits - height, aggression, strength.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST WITH MEN
A man can enhance his fitness by investing in his children or maximising his number of mates, but it
would be difficult to do both.
These trade offs lead to variations in male strategies
● Cads – low investment males seeking to maximise mating opportunities
● Dads – high investment males committed to one partner
These strategies will affect the choices women face. Should a woman try to secure an investing male
or should she content herself with getting good genes and immediate resources from a non-investing
cad?
THE SOCIO-BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
This is the idea that men and women employ different strategies for attracting a mate.
Male Strategies:
● Courtship Rituals – Allows showing off genetic potential and resources.
● Size – Bigger body sizes demonstrate physical strength and an ability to protect partner and
offspring from threats.
, ● Sperm Competition – Men have evolved to have bigger testicles and faster swimming sperm
● Mate Guarding – Keeping a close eye on partners to prevent unfaithfulness.
● Sneak Copulation – Being unfaithful (can be beneficial to both parties).
Female Strategies:
● Sexy Sons Hypothesis – Females select males they deem physically attractive as they are
likely to pass this onto their children, increasing the offspring’s chance of reproducing.
● Handicap Hypothesis – Some women may pick men with handicaps as it shows an ability to
thrive despite adversities. May explain why some women are attracted to men who take drugs
and drink a lot.
● Courtship – Dating is an important strategy for females to establish a man’s worth to produce
offspring.
PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS
Physical attractiveness is very important in the attraction of a mate.
For men – Younger women signal fertility and health. A younger woman will also have more time to
look after the offspring. This could explain why the majority of men are older than their female
partners.
For women – Women are attracted to men with bigger resources. Someone who can provide for the
family. Kindness is also attractive, as it suggests a tendency to share resources.
OTHER FACTORS
Facial Symmetry - faces that are symmetrical are deemed to be more attractive. It is thought that
symmetrical facial features require genetic precision and demonstrate a healthy set of genetics.
Body Symmetry and Waist-to-Hip Ratio - Ideal waist-to-hip ratio is roughly 0.7. It is noted that many
supermodels are around this ratio.
RESEARCH INTO EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS FOR PARTNER PREFERENCES
Buss - found that men preferred younger, physically attractive females in 37 different cultures while
females preferred ambitious and older men with vast resources.
Toma - Men find it easier to lie about income and education when it comes to personal advertisements
in newspapers. Could this translate into internet dating (e.g. Tinder)?
Cartwright - Found that women with symmetrical breasts were more fertile than women with
asymmetrical breasts, supporting the idea that symmetry suggests higher fertility.
Swami and Furnham - Ideal waist-to-hip ratio is roughly 0.7. It is noted that many supermodels are
around this ratio.
EVOLUTIONARY FACTORS EVALUATIONS
These theories do not explain long-distance relationships, homosexual relationships or couples who
actively do not want children. Also not explained in asexuality.
It does not make logical sense that women are attracted to someone who takes drugs or drinks a lot.
Whilst it shows a resilience against adversity there is an increased chance of death and a cessation of
resources. This goes against the idea of evolution and survival.
It could be argued females are more attentive of their physical appearance (e.g. application of make
up). This is supportive of evolutionary theory.
If a woman is able to financially support herself and her children, what is the need for a man?
There also seems to be a conflict between natural selection and sexual selection. Some sexual
characteristics may inhibit other characteristics that try to encourage our survival.
There is a lot of evidence from the animal kingdom to back up these theoretical suggestions – e.g.
females attracting the male, male competition etc.
Factors Affecting Attraction
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