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Summary of the OIS Literature Final Test
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A summary of all literature for the second exam of Interactive Systems Research. Here are six articles summarized, plus the material from the lectures.
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Behaviourism: Our behavior is determined by the environment. Our behavior is learned by theenvironment. No further consideration is given to the motivations of humans or animals.
Cognitivism: Cognitivism describes how people acquire, organize and use knowledge in their
behavior. (with information processing model).
Constructivism: learning is seen as an active process of knowledge acquisition. One of the principles
is that learning is a process of constructing knowledge.
- This view objects to the individual nature of the information processing model,
- Learning does not take place in isolation but in association with others (social)
- Learning is active
- Knowledge is personal: new knowledge is constructed in connection with previously acquired
knowledge
- Metacognition (planning, monitoring and evaluation) are important
Situated cognition: learning theory with the following principles:
- No fixed internal representations
- Memory is not a repository but a process
- Knowledge is culturally situated in certain cultural practices. For example, you become a
mathematician by learning to behave like a mathematician.
Classic and operant conditioning:
• Classical conditioning: a natural response (drooling)
• Operant conditioning: training an unnatural response (making an elephant spin around on a
small trapeze)
o Reinforcement (reinforcement):
Positive and negative
Reward and punishment
o Reinforcement schedules: interval and ratio
Transfer: applying what has been learned in a new situation.
Positive transfer occurs when a previously learned behaviour increases some aspect of performance
on a similar new behaviour. Example: skills in playing the violin facilitate learning to play the piano
, Negative transfer occurs when an old behaviour interferes with the performance of a similar new
behaviour. Example: Left-hand drive vehicles hindering the learning of right-hand drive.
Near transfer: Transfer of knowledge between similar contexts. Example: using programming
experience from C for learning Python.
Far transfer: Transfer of knowledge between dissimilar contexts. Example: knowledge of Spanish
facilitates the learning of French.
Implications for serious games:
- Conditioning: for example, learning to suppress a particular tendency (alcohol addiction)
- Cognitivism: build the skill incrementally (in small steps), keep the working memory load limited,
avoid making mistakes
- Constructivism: give room for self-exploration of the environment, setting own goals and
provide built-in moments of reflection
- Situationism: solve real problems, work with others of different levels, cognitive apprenticeship
Definition of games: rule based, Targeted, Pattern recognition, Reward/punishment – feedback, Fun
= mastery,= pattern recognition = learning, Mainly experiential learning, Relationship between
experiential and reflective cognition. But also: Challenging, Gives pleasure, Can also be reflective,
Not exclusively competitive, Collaborative
Sandberg et al. 2014
Two groups participated in a study on the added value of a gaming context and intelligent
adaptation for a mobile learning application. Constructivists viewpoint (active learning, authentic
context, social).
To sustain motivation, we adapted MEL-original in two ways:
1. By using artificial intelligence techniques to adapt the navigation of the child through the
learning content to his or her particular level of knowledge and skill, and
2. By embedding the learning application in a gaming context, providing an interesting context and
awarding the children for their learning efforts.
Adaptation should keep the learner in a preferred state, neither bored, nor overwhelmed. Adapting
to the learner’s developing level of knowledge and skill will help motivate earners over a longer
period of time. Flow is completely focused motivation.
The field of serious gaming is concerned with games that serve some other primary purpose than
mere entertainment.
Game characteristics:
1. ‘Fantasy’ is related to the concepts of immersion and engagement.
2. Rules and goals’ are related to challenge and underlying learning objectives
3. ‘Sensory stimuli’ are needed to fully engage the learner. Visual and auditory stimuli serve to
create a feeling of presence in the game environment.
4. Challenge’ refers to the level of difficulty of the goals set for the learner. Too difficult creates
frustration (Koster, 2005) whereas too easy creates boredom.
5. Control’ addresses the learner’s influence on the flow of the game.
6. Mystery’ refers to introducing uncertainty and surprise to a game
7. Rewards’ in games are often scoring points, being able to buy items, winning medals, etc.
8. Competition or cooperation refers to possible social interaction the player may have during
the game
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