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PSYCHOLOGY&
ORGANISATIONS
Volume
4
ORGANIZATIONAL
WORK
CONDITIONS
PHYSICAL
AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL
WORK
CONDITIONS
Physical:
The
Hawthorne
studies
(Wikstrom
and
Bendix,
2000)
Psychological:
bullying
at
work
(Einarsen,
1999)
Open
plan
offices
(Oldham
and
Brass,
1979)
TEMPORAL
CONDITIONS
OF
WORK
ENVIRONMENTS
Shiftwork:
rapid
rotation
theory
(metropolitan
rota
and
continental
rota);
slow
rotation
theory
(Pheasant,
1991)
Effects
of
shiftwork
on
health
(Knutsson,
2003)
Shiftwork
and
accidents
(Gold
et
al.,1992)
HEALTH
AND
SAFETY
Accidents
at
work:
errors
and
accidents
in
operator-‐machine
systems
Reducing
accidents
at
work:
token
economy
(Fox
et
al.,
1987)
Safety
promotion
campaigns
(Cowpe,
1989)
Thilinie Jayasekara MBBS MSc Psych UK 1
, 1.0
PHYSICAL
AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL
WORK
CONDITIONS
1.1
PHYSICAL:
THE
HAWTHORNE
STUDIES
(WIKSTROM
AND
BENDIX,
2000)
Hawthorne
effect:
this
is
a
psychological
term
that
refers
to
the
effect
that
people
may
have
on
their
behaviour
when
they
know
that
they
are
being
observed
or
that
they
are
a
part
of
a
study,
people
work
hard/productivity
improves
when
they
are
being
observed/
or
knowing
that
one
is
being
observed
will
affect
the
results
of
a
study
Ø The
Hawthorne
experiments
were
first
conducted
in
November,
1924
at
Western
Electric
Company’s
Hawthorne
plant
in
Chicago
Ø The
initial
tests
were
sponsored
by
The
National
Research
Council
(NRC)
of
the
National
Academy
of
Sciences
Ø In
1927,
a
research
team
from
Harvard
Business
School
was
invited
to
join
the
studies
after
the
illumination
test
drew
unanticipated
results
Ø A
team
of
researchers
led
by
George
Elton
Mayo
from
the
Harvard
Business
School
carried
out
the
studies
There
were
5
experiments
conducted
to
find
out
the
role
of
human
resource,
in
increasing
the
production
of
an
organization.
The
experiment
was
the
illumination
experiment
• Changing
light
Intensity
vs.
Worker
Output
• Result:
(expected
result
was
the
productivity
to
reduce
with
reducing
light
intensity)
– They
found
higher
worker
productivity
and
satisfaction
at
all
light
levels
:
light
levels
basically
did
not
have
an
effect
on
productivity
– Worker
productivity
was
only
stopped
when
the
light
levels
reached
moonlight
intensity.
• Conclusions:
– Light
intensity
has
no
conclusive
effect
on
output
– Productivity
has
a
psychological
component
Concept
of
“Hawthorne
Effect”
was
created
The
researchers
concluded
that
their
presence
made
them
work
harder
regardless
of
the
illumination
and
that
worker
motivation
can
be
increased
by
supervision.
There
were
4
more
experiments
conducted
to
find
out
how
different
factors
effect
work
production
and
the
final
conclusion
was
“teamwork-‐that
is,
of
sustained
cooperation
leads
to
success”.
Why
did
the
original
Hawthorn
study
increase
productivity?
Looking
back
psychologists
think
there
would
have
been
other
explanations
(influences)
to
increase
productivity
than
the
manipulations
they
did
in
each
experiment.
They
are;
1. Economic
depression
at
the
time-‐
increasing
productivity
keep
the
job
2. Supervisors
were
stricter
in
the
normal
set
up
than
the
experimental
set
up;
so
the
experiment
set
up
would
have
been
more
comfortable
3. Interesting
atmosphere
in
the
test
room
Thilinie Jayasekara MBBS MSc Psych UK 2
, 4. Special
privileges
given
to
participants
in
the
study
(positive
attention)
5. Higher
income
6. Some
participants
(2-‐5)
changed
in
the
middle
of
the
experiment
and
this
too
would
have
affected
the
continuation
of
production
Concluding
remarks
The
"Hawthorne
effect"
is
commonly
referred
to
as
an
increase
in
productivity
-‐
or
even
some
other
outcome
under
study
-‐
caused
by
participation
in
the
study
as
such.
It
is
probable
that
participation
in
a
study
may
in-‐
crease
productivity
in
certain
contexts,
for
instance,
those
at
the
Hawthorne
works
in
Chicago
in
the
early
1930s.
However,
the
available
literature
does
not
support
the
hypothesis
that
this
same
phenomenon
necessarily
hap-‐
pens
in
other
contexts.
Over
the
years
several
other
interpretations
of
the
results
of
the
Hawthorne
studies
than
those
made
by
the
original
reporters
have
been
present-‐
ed.
Accordingly,
the
observed
increase
in
productivity
may
well
have
been
brought
about
by
one
or
more
of
the
following
list:
(i)
relief
from
harsh
supervision,
(ii)
receiving
positive
attention,
(iii)
learning
new
ways
of
interaction,
(iv)
possibilities
to
influence
work
procedures,
(v)
rest
pauses,
(vi)
higher
income,
or
(vii)
threat
of
losing
one's
job.
All
of
these
factors,
as
well
as
any
combination
of
them,
can
be
argued
for
as
causes
of
the
observed
increase
in
productivity.
The
so-‐called
Hawthorne
effect
has
thus
become
more
and
more
ambiguous
over
time.
Therefore,
it
is
questionable
whether
the
term
has
a
function
any
longer
in
the
evaluation
of
results
from
intervention
research
in
industry
-‐
not
to
mention
results
from
clinical
or
epidemiologic
research
in
general.
1.2
PSYCHOLOGICAL:
BULLYING
AT
WORK
(EINARSEN,
1999)
Abstract-‐
The
present
paper
reviews
and
summaries
the
research
and
literature
on
the
nature
and
causes
of
bullying
at
work.
Bullying
occurs
when
someone
at
work
is
systematically
subjected
to
aggressive
behaviour
from
one
or
more
colleagues
or
superiors
over
a
long
period
of
time,
in
a
situation
where
the
target
finds
it
difficult
to
defend
him
or
herself
or
to
escape
the
situation.
Such
treatment
tends
to
stigmatize
the
target
and
may
even
cause
severe
psychological
trauma.
Empirical
studies
on
the
causes
of
bullying
have
concentrated
on
the
personality
of
the
victim
and
psychosocial
factors
at
work.
Most
studies
treat
bullying
as
a
unified
phenomenon,
in
spite
of
the
fact
that
different
kinds
of
behaviours
are
involved.
The
concepts
of
dispute-‐related
and
predatory
bullying
are
introduced
in
an
effort
to
broaden
the
perspectives
used
in
future
investigations
on
both
the
nature
and
the
causes
of
bullying
at
work.
Einarsen
has
described
bullying
(some
times
called
as
mobbing
/victimization)
as
hostile
and
aggressive
behaviour,
either
physical
or
non
physical
directed
at
one
or
more
colleagues
or
subordinates
(even
superiors).
This
definition
emphasizes
two
main
features
seen
in
most
definitions
of
bullying
at
work:
repeated
and
enduring
aggressive
behaviours
that
are
intended
to
be
hostile
and/or
perceived
as
hostile
by
the
recipient
Bullying
is
regarded
as
the
highest
work
related
stress.
It
is
mostly
done
as
verbal
bullying.
Thilinie Jayasekara MBBS MSc Psych UK 3
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