In dit document zit alle informatie die je nodig hebt voor het tweede deeltentamen van Cognitie en Gedrag, namelijk een samenvatting van het boek, de belangrijke informatie uit de onderzoeksopdrachten en de aantekeningen bij de hoorcolleges. Ik heb zelf deze samenvatting gemaakt en gebruikt en er e...
Self-image hypothesis: memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person’s self-image or life
identity is being formed.
Cognitive hypothesis: periods of rapid change that are followed by stability cause stronger encoding
of memories.
Cultural life script hypothesis: distinguishes between a person’s life story and a cultural life script.
Emotion, confirmed by greater amygdala activity, enhances particularly the recollection-related
activity in the hippocampus. It seems that emotions may trigger mechanisms in the amygdala that
help us remember events that are associated with those emotions. Cortisol enhances memory for
emotional pictures, but not for neutral pictures. Hormone activation that occurs subsequent to
arousing emotional experiences enhances memory consolidation in humans. Under certain
conditions, emotions can impair memory.
Flashbulb memories: vivid and long-lasting memories for the circumstances surrounding how a
person heard about an event. Flashbulb memories for positive events are less likely to exist, because
they are often less shared by a group of people. Flashbulb memories are often inaccurate and lack
detail. But people’s belief that they are accurate about a flashbulb memory is higher than for an
everyday memory.
Repeated recall: the technique of comparing later memories to memories collected immediately
after the event.
Emotions enhance the subjective sense of remembering: the vividness of the memory, the
confidence that it is accurate and the sense of reliving an event. Emotions enhance our ability to
remember that an event occurred and some of its general characteristics, but do not enhance our
memory for details of what happened.
Narrative rehearsal hypothesis: We remember events, because we rehearse these events after they
occur.
Constructive nature of memory: what people report as memories are constructed based on what
actually happened plus additional factors.
Repeated reproduction: participants try to remember a story at longer and longer intervals than they
had first read it.
Barlett’s War of the Gosts experiment: the reproductions of the story tended to reflect the
participant’s own culture.
Source monitoring: the process of determining the origins of our memories, knowledge or beliefs.
Cryptoamnesia: unconscious plagiarism of the work of others.
Pragmatic inference: when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not
explicitly stated or implied by the sentence. These inferences are based on knowledge gained
through experience. A schema is a person’s knowledge about some aspect of the environment.
,Von Restorff effect: distinctiveness or (un)expectedness aids memory
A script is our conception of the sequence of actions that usually occurs during a particular
experience.
False memories arise from the same constructive process that produces true memories.
Misinformation effect/misleading post-event information/MPI: misleading information presented
after a person witnesses an event that can change how the person describes that event later.
Presentation of MPI can alter not only what participants report they saw, but their conclusions about
other characteristics of the situation as well.
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A Hebbian synapse is one that can increase its effectiveness as a result of simultaneous activity in the
presynaptic in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.
Long-term potentiation: One or more axons connected to a dendrite bombard it with a rapid series
of stimuli. The burst of intense stimulation leaves some of the synapses potentiated. LTP shows three
properties that make it an attractive candidate for a cellular basis of learning and memory:
- Specificity: Only active synapses become strengthened
- Cooperativity: Nearly simultaneous stimulation by two or more axons produces LTP more
strongly than does repeated stimulation by just one axon.
- Associativity: Pairing a weak input with a strong input enhances later response to the weak
input.
Long term depression: a prolonged decrease in response at a synapse, occurs for axons that have
been less active than others.
NDMA-receptors: repeated release of glutamate -> many sodium ions enter the AMPA channels ->
dendrite becomes strongly depolarized -> magnesium molecules are displaced, enabling glutamate to
open the NDMA channel -> sodium and calcium enter through the NDMA channel -> calcium
activates CaMKII -> release of CREB -> CREB goes to the nucleus of the cell and regulates the
expression of several genes.
Extensive stimulation of a postsynaptic cell causes it to release a retrograde transmitter. When both
presynaptic and postsynaptic changes contribute to LPT, the result is greater precision and stability of
learning. LTP is important for learning.
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Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
Acquisition refers to the development of a conditioned response.
Inhibition: A feature of classical conditioning in which a CS predicts the nonoccurence of an UCS.
(light = shock, light + bell = no shock, now the bell predicts the nonoccurence of fear/shock).
Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original CS
Discrimination: A learned ability to distinguish between stimuli
Higher-order conditioning: Learning in which stimuli associated with a CS also elicit unconditioned
responses
, Latent inhibition: The slower learning that occurs when a CS is already familiar compared to when
the CS is unfamiliar (getting sick after eating pizza)
We don’t bother to learn much about new signals that provide no additional information, even if
they meet our requirements for contiguity (closeness in time) and contingency (the correlation
between the CS and the UCS) (e.g. blue computer screen and funny sound).
Aversion therapy: An application of counterconditioning in which a CS formerly paired with a
pleasant UCS is instead paired with an unpleasant UCS
Systematic desensitization: A type of counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed
to stimuli that elicit fear.
Creative people and people with schizophrenia form new associations with familiar stimuli faster
than most people do.
Conditioned reinforcers: A reinforcer that gains value from being associated with other things that
are valued; also known as a secondary reinforcer (money, grades, gold medals)
Partial reinforcement effect in extinction: The more rapid extinction observed following continuous
reinforcement compared to that following partial reinforcement.
Method of successive approximations: A method for increasing the frequency of behaviors that
never or rarely occur; also known as shaping. This can be done by chaining.
Latent learning: Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement
Token economy: An application of operant conditioning in which tokens that can be exchanged for
other reinforcers are used to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors.
Bandura identified four necessary cognitive processes in the modeling of others’ behavior: attention,
retention, reproduction, and motivation.
Richard Dawkins memes: basic unit of cultural transmission (e.g. melodies, religious beliefs,
catchphrases)
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Conceptual knowledge: the knowledge that enables us to recognize objects and events and to make
inferences about their properties
Concepts: the mental representation of a class or individual and the meaning of objects, events and
abstract ideas. Such descriptions go beyond a record of visual features.
Category: all possible examples of a particular concept
Definitional approach to categorization: we can decide whether something is a member of a
category by determining whether a particular object meets the definition of that category. Family
resemblance: things in a particular category resemble one another in a number of ways.
Prototype approach to categorization: membership in a category is determined by comparing the
object to a prototype that represents the category. A prototype is a typical member of the category.
The prototype is not an actual member of the category but is an average representation of the most
common members of a category.
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