Summary Everything You Need to Pass the Emotion Exam
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Course
Emotion (7202BS02XY)
Institution
Universiteit Van Amsterdam (UvA)
Book
Psychology of Emotion
Buy this together with the first part of my Emotion summary. Using these summaries, I passed al exams with a grade of 8.0 or higher.
Part of the Social Psychologie specialisation at the University of Amsterdam.
Table of Contents
Lecture 1 Methods for the Science of Emotion
Chapter 2 Psychology of Emotion p. 1
More from slides p. 3
Lecture 2 Theories
Chapter 1 Theories of Emotion p. 4
More from slides p. 6
Lecture 3 Expressions
Chapter 4 Functions of Emotion p. 7
Chapter 5 Expression of Emotion p. 8
More from slides p. 9
Lecture 4 Emotion and Cognition
Chapter 8 Emotion and Cognition p. 11
More from slides p. 13
Lecture 5 Groups and Emotion
Tausch et al. (2011) Explaining Radical Group Behaviour p. 15
Case et al. (2021) Intergroup Musical Contact p. 15
More from slides p. 16
Lammers et al. (2020) Collective Nostalgia p. 18
Harmon-Jones et al. (2007) Affective States p. 20
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,EMOTION MIKA SADEH
Lecture 1: Methods for the Science of Emotion
Niedenthal and Ric | Chapter 2
In order to conduct research on human emotions, affective scientists attempt to create replicable
experiments in the laboratory to induce emotional states. How do scientists elicit and measure
emotions reliably?
Reasons a researcher would induce an emotion in the laboratory:
➔ To test predictions of a specific theory of emotion. An affective scientist might want to know
which facial expressions or physiological changes co-occur with a particular self-reported
emotion.
➔ To test whether that affective state reliably causes a particular behaviour.
➔ To study how emotions influence cognitive behaviours such as reasoning or decision making.
In order to measure such consequences of emotions, emotions must be induced in a laboratory setting.
During this scientists are required to conform to a set of ethical guidelines. Emotional states can be
induced (artificially) through the use of:
➔ Films.
➔ Music. More often, researchers rely on general effects of music on people’s experience of
emotion (high-pitched tones are associated with positive emotions, low-pitched tones with
negative emotions). Although music influences emotions, the emotions may not correspond to
basic emotions (more so complex emotions).
➔ Emotional (affective) pictures. Good for research that requires that many brief emotional
reactions be elicited in one participant throughout an experimental session. The international
affective picture system (IAPS) is a widely used set of emotion-inducing pictures.
➔ Recall (and reliving) of emotional memories. Good for research questions that require that a
more prolonged emotional reaction be induced in experimental participants. Retrieval of
emotional memories in a way that does not focus on the emotional parts of the experience but
still accurately describes the situation does not reactivate the original emotion. A retrieval that
involves attention to the vivid emotional aspects of the situation usually does.
➔ Scripted social interactions. These are usually held with an experimenter or fake participant
(confederate). Especially useful when the emotion is difficult to elicit realistically by the
aforementioned methods.
Emotions can also be studied by harnessing and measuring naturally occurring emotions which occur
due to events in people’s lives. This can be done by:
➔ Finding groups of people who have a strong probability of all being in a similar and
predictable emotional state (individuals after having seen a depressing film will be, on
average, in a very sad state), and compare them to people in another situation who are feeling
little emotion or something different (people reading in a library will likely be in a neutral
state). The behaviour of these two groups could be compared in order to draw conclusions
about how sadness influences behaviour.
❖ A quasi-experimental study found that individuals at a wedding (happy state) were
more likely to make categories based on emotional equivalences between objects than
individuals who were walking on the street (neutral state).
➔ Measuring ongoing emotion in the laboratory or in daily life using online assessments and
relate their reported emotions to the behaviour of interest. See experience sampling.
Quasi-experimental studies = studies in which there are experimental and control conditions, but
participants are not randomly assigned to them. Good for studying naturally occurring emotions.
→ Enhances ecological validity since the experiences of quasi-experimental studies are more similar
to what might be experienced in daily life.
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, EMOTION MIKA SADEH
Experience sampling = participants complete online questionnaires about their emotions throughout
the day. The questionnaires can ask the respondent to indicate which emotions they are experiencing,
rate the intensity of those emotions, and indicate what happened to cause the emotion. This type of
sampling data has three basic schedules a researcher can choose from:
➔ Interval contingent responding: participants fill out the computer-based questionnaires at
regular times throughout the day, such as morning, noon, and in the evening.
➔ Event-contingent responding: participants fill out the questionnaires in response to specific
types of events, like whenever they have an emotion that lasts a certain amount of time.
➔ Signal-contingent responding: participants complete the questionnaires whenever the
palmtop computer signals them to do so.
In order to decide which induction method to use for your study, it is important to look at
experimental demand (how easy is it to guess what a study is designed to test), standardisation
(extent to which the method has been tested for effectiveness and reliability), complexity (how many
components of the emotion are invoked) and ecological validity.
There are also many techniques for measuring individuals’ emotional states, including:
➔ Questionnaires. Verbal measure questionnaires use Likert response scales, in which
numerical assessments can be converted into words. The Positive and Negative Affect
Schedule (PANAS) lets respondents rate each word on a continuous numerical scale from 1
(very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely), according to how much they are feeling that state.
Nonverbal measure questionnaires let respondents check the circle underneath one out of a
few images according to how well its look corresponds to their feeling state at that moment.
These ratings can then be converted into scores.
➔ Assessment of facial expression. In the component method (facial electromyography (EMG)
recordings of contracted facial muscles; electrodes) visible and nonvisible, voluntary and
spontaneous facial behaviour are recorded. The judgement method is concerned with the
information that an observer can infer from a facial expression.
➔ Recording of physiology and brain states. The central nervous system (CNS), which
includes the brain and the spinal cord, plays an important role in our emotional response.
Scientists either (i) look for the systems of the brain that occur at the same time as an
emotional event, or (ii) look for correlations between events in the brain and emotional
responding. Electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) are methods to assess emotion processes in the CNS.
Electroencephalography (EEG) = the changes in the electrical potential of groups of neurons can be
measured over time with an electrode “headcap” placed on the scalp.
→ Not very precise in localising where in the brain the signal comes from (low spatial resolution).
→ Used to test some hypotheses about the role of the different hemispheres of the brain in generating
positive and negative emotions, or to assess the timing of responses to a perceived emotional object
(‘event’) by averaging EEG signals over many trials (ERP). Events with unpleasant valence produce
larger P1 amplitudes than pleasant and neutral images.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) = detects blood oxygenation and blood flow
changes. Based on the scans, activation maps are computed.
→ Good for showing which parts of the brain are involved in solving a particular task or making a
particular judgement; more precise and reliable data.
The important considerations for choosing a way to measure emotions in research are whether the
method is language-based (self-report; not useful for children/cross cultural research. Also open to
demand characteristics), subjective versus objective (biases), measuring discrete or more global
states of emotion, invasive or expensive.
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