This document contains the required readings (CH2-Ch11)of the following book:
Dooremalen, H., De Regt, D. & Schouten, M. (2007). Exploring humans; philosophy of science for the social sciences, a historical introduction (4th/5th edition). Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Boom (publisher).
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Samenvatting Exploring Humans - Philosophy of the social sciences (3801PSQPVY)
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Week 1
Reading A (Watt & van den Berg)
The main differences between science and naive inquiry is the awareness that our observations are prone
to error and we must employ strategies to guard against those. Five points of differences:
1. The development of theories. A theory is a set of two or more concepts interrelated by one or
more hypothetical or theoretical propositions. A theory represents a statement about what might
logically be happening. The scientist systematically goes through all concepts that may or may not
be relevant and reviews the work of others. The naive scientist, in contrast, guided by biases or
conviction, might select a concepts based on appeal rather than relevance explanation based
on their own observation of reality, as if their own observation suffices to construct a completed
theory.
2. The testing of theories. The naive scientist will frequently be satisfied that his theory is correct
because its truth is self-evident or common-sense. If evidence is used, their own personal
observations suffice. More ‘objective’ evidence is often interpreted in a way that the info
provided is consistent with their theory. In contrast, the true scientist insists on obtaining
objective evidence before making judgements and try to avoid bias through developing
alternative explanations. He also publishes his research methods.
3. Control of alternative explanations. The true scientist, when faced with multiple variables, will
exert systematic control to make sure that a variable causes effect independent of all other causal
variables. As the naive scientists is neither systematic nor thorough, control over variables is not
possible.
4. The nature of relationships. There are 3 possible relationships between two concepts. 1. Null: no
relationship. 2. Covariance: concepts vary together, but no cause and effect. 3. Causal
relationship: concepts covary and changes of one concept precedes the other’s change. The true
scientist is aware of these differences and will use statistics to distinguish, while the naive
scientist will not and might interpret it as they see fit.
5. Testing theories with observable evidence. Evidence must be observable by any person. The
naive scientist is not concerned with that.
Methods of knowing
1. Method of tenacity. Find truths by asserting that it is because it’s common knowledge
2. Method of authority. Truth is established when someone with for which one has high regard said
so. Some safeguard, because it often relies on experts
3. The ‘a priori’ method or method of reasonable men. Establishing truth lies in reasonableness of
the argument exchanged among people. It has been scrutinized by a number of people and
emerged as a truth, which could be seen as a social process involving many authorities. However,
who decides what’s reasonable?
4. The method of science. Science shifts the locus of truth from single individuals to groups, by
establishing a set of mutually agreed upon rules for establishing truth. It still demands logical
consistency like a priori, but needs to be tested in an external reality which can be perceived by
anyone.
Limitations of scientific method: we cannot employ scientific method when objective observation is not
possible. The limits of science are clear, that of belief are not.
,Lecture A
The problems with facts today is that they are up for discussion: what is fake and what is true.
Why is it important to know the facts:
- To make choices
- To make decisions (large-scale: society)
- To make policy
- Thus: to distinguish between true and false
Two basic philosophical positions about science
- Scientism: ‘Science is superior to all attempts at securing knowledge: its laws provide certainty’.
Our mind is perfect mirror of reality. Science is only way to obtain truth. Also associated with
modernism: rational-secular (without religion), think for yourself, use reason.
- Scepticism: science doesn’t give certainty, it’s equal to other forms of knowledge, it’s a faith
/ideology oppressive power. Critical about science, against methodological rules. More than 1
truth, truth is experience. Our mind is a crooked mirror: we will never know anything. Associated
with post modernism: also secular thinking, but individual and emotional expression are key.
Knowledge and truth are social constructions that need ‘deconstruction’ (relativism/nihilism)
Relativism = Everything is relative. Science is just an opinion. This is a radical interpretation of
philosophical scepticism.
Identity politics: lot of policies and politicians are very much into the identity of groups of people, which
some people say is a threat to a freedom of speech
Two basic exploration styles
- Naive inquiry: non formalized, non-systematic, non-controlled form of collecting and
summarizing information into naïve theories.
o Also known as
Common sense: what we do in daily life
Premodern thinking: religious thinking, belief in a given truth (i.e. by god)
Non-sophisticated ways of knowing reality (fixing belief)
o Methods of knowing
Tenacity: what is commonly known is true
Authority: high regarded person speaks the truth
Reasonable man: reason and logical consistency is key
o Associations: biases, convictions, myths, popular scepticism, some forms of postmodern.
o Wrong use of the word theory (calling it a theory when it’s a hypothesis/speculation)
- Scientific inquiry: highly formalized, systematic controlled inquiry. Observations and
reasoning are error prone. Uses scientific method. ‘Science shifts the locus of truth from single
individuals to groups, by establishing a set of mutually agreed upon rules for establishing truth.’
o Also known as:
The scientific method (scientific journals, empirical cycle v)
Modern thinking
Analytical-empirical approach: experimental research
o Associations:
Critical shift in perspective compared to naive inquiry
Internal beliefs should be supported by external evidence
Methodological rigour, modelling
o Truth is an objective reality ‘out there’ and our ideas do not alter that reality. We
develop theories that are true.
,Theory is key: ‘A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts) definitions, and propositions that
present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of
explaining and predicting the phenomena.’ Develop theories using scientific method: testing theories,
control of alternative explanations, attention for the nature of relationships, use observable evidence.
(basically summary of MCRS). Scientific method:
1) Use and selection of concepts (variables)
2) Linking concepts variables) to propositions (hypotheses)
3) Testing theories with observable evidence
4) The definition of concepts (variables)
5) Publication of definitions and procedures
6) Control of alternative explanation
7) Unbiased selection of evidence
8) Reconciliation of theory and observation
Five pillars of scientific research
1. Empiricism: answering scientific questions demands unbiased observation and testing Science
is empirical: it works with observable evidence (through senses or tech)
2. Realism: ‘science states that there is an objective reality and that our ideas about it do not alter
it. Science assumes that there is an independent reality out there.
3. Objectivism: ‘obtaining objective evidence’ and ‘truth, the objective reality that exists out there’.
Scientific theory must hold objectively: independently of the beliefs and attitudes of researchers
4. Logic: ‘a theory represents a statement about what might logically be happening’ Science uses
logical methods to formulate terms, make arguments, etc. logical reasoning.
5. Critical attitudes and fallibility: Scientists have a critical attitude and realise that they could be
wrong (fallible).
Goal of science is to find true, and content-rich statements, laws, or theories relating to a given domain of
phenomena.
Why we rely on science in this pandemic
- Science is effective
- Science produces knowledge
- Science gives science-based advice to politicians and the public
- Science works on solutions
- Science has/tries to find answers to our questions
Philosophy = love of wisdom.
Philosophy of science
Philosophy of science: analyses the methods of inquiry used in sciences.
Main questions in philosophy of science
- What are the sources of knowledge
- What is science and how does it differ from non-science
- How do we handle knowledge and science today
- What is rational, what is truth, what is real
- What is wisdom about science?
It’s a meta theory (theory about theory).
, Reading B
Rationalism: true knowledge about reality derives from the proper use of our reasoning capacities
(intellect, reason or ratio) our capacity to think generates ideas and concepts which we cannot arrive
at by using our sensory capacities alone (based on Plato and Socrates). Socrates
Empiricism: not reason, but sense experience is the ultimate source of knowledge senses are reliable
indicators of what reality is like. (based on Aristotle, Plato’s pupil)
Epistemology: the philosophy of science and knowledge. What is knowledge? How do we gain it?
Plato’s Rationalism
Metaphysics (ontology, ‘to be’) is the branch of philosophy that asks and tries to answer the pre-eminent
philosophical questions: Why is there something rather than nothing? What is the world made of?
Heraclites vs Parmenides regarding metaphysics
- Heraclites: ‘nothing is, everything becomes (changes)’. Due to the ever-changing nature of
appearances, most people are not able to attain knowledge. They are like sleepwalkers. Only
those few people who are capable of grasping the hidden and fundamental law, or Logos, behind
appearances can be said to arrive at knowledge.
- Parmenides claimed that it is their senses that mislead human beings into thinking that things are
changing all the time. Something cannot come from, or dissolve into, nothing. Underlying all the
change and movement that we pick up with our senses, there is a permanent and unchanging
reality. Nothing ever really changes: if something changes, it no longer is. Ultimately, everything
is, nothing becomes. Real existence means to be without change. Hence, knowledge pertains to a
hidden order beyond the transient appearances. As the senses are deeply misleading guides to
reality, we must rely on reason to discover the unchanging truths about eternal reality.
Plato respected both philosophers as they’re both rationalistic, even if they are opposing. His reasoning:
e.g., someone may say table is white because he saw so. Plato argued that if we thus equate knowledge
with perception, the allegedly fluctuating nature of the perceptual world has devastating implications,
because it will easily breed scepticism with respect to knowledge: genuine knowledge will in that case be
rendered downright impossible. Knowledge and truth become interpretable and subjective: homo
mensura, man is the measure of all things. Plato did not agree with that: Truth and knowledge (episteme)
are about how reality, not about subjectivity and interpretation. Therefore, knowledge is not perception,
because of the perpetual flux of natural reality. It would points towards relativism, where everyone has
their own ‘truths’ (not good).
Plato sided to a great extent with Parmenides, because in his view being is perfect, which for him implies
that it has to be unchangeable. One’s knowledge concerning tables is about this Form and not about its
less-than-perfect manifestations (i.e. if you see a triangle on a chalkboard, you see a representation and
not the essence, or universal Form, of the triangle). According to Plato, human beings contenting
themselves with observations of the world as it appears to them by sensory experience are in a similar
position to the prisoners: they mistake appearance for reality. ‘Their souls are imprisoned in their bodies’.
We must learn to ‘see’ behind the appearances into the world of Forms, of which perception only allows
shadowy glimpses. The operation of the senses results in mere belief (doxa) not knowledge (episteme).
Because the Forms belong to a supernatural world we cannot perceive through senses. But we can,
according to Plato, gain knowledge about this transcendental reality through our capacity for reasoning.
Plato subscribes to nativism, the doctrine (closely associated with rationalism) that human beings possess
innate (or inborn) ideas insofar as we have such ideas, we do not have to rely on our senses for
knowledge. Plato even claimed we possessed all knowledge, which we lost at birth. He claimed that to
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