These notes cover all of Theory for AQA Sociology A Level including functionalism, feminism, Marxism, social action theories, modernity, postmodernity, objectivity and values, social policy, sociology and science.
Functionalist Theory:
Many of the key ideas of functionalism can be traced back to
Durkheim in the 19th century, however, it was Parsons who
developed functionalism as a systematic theory of society in the
mid 20th Century.
Functionalism is a macro structural theory and focuses on the
needs of the social system as a whole and how these needs
shape all the main needs of society.
It sees society as based on a consensus or agreement among its
members about values, goals, and rules.
Functionalism is a modernist theory that shares the goals of the
Enlightenment project – the belief that we can obtain true
knowledge of the functions of society to improve society.
Society as a system:
Parsons identifies three similarities between society and
organisms in his organic analogy:
o System = Organisms and society have self-regulating systems that are inter-
related and interdependent (e.g. organs vs. institutions)
o System Needs = Organisms have needs such as nutrition and society has the
need of its members being socialised in order for it to continue.
o Functions = Each component of both an organism and society has a specific
function (e.g. the circulatory system vs. the education system)
Value Consensus and Social Order:
Parsons argues that social order is achieved through the existence of a shared
culture or a central value system.
Social order is only possible so long as members of society agree on these norms and
values.
Parsons calls this agreement value consensus – value consensus binds and holds
society together.
Integration of Individuals:
The basic function of value consensus is to make social order possible by integrating
individuals into the social system, thereby directing them towards meeting the
system’s needs.
Parsons identifies two mechanisms for ensuring that individuals conform to shared
norms and meet the system’s needs:
o Socialisation = The socialisation process results in individuals internalising the
system’s norms and values so that society becomes part of their personality
structure.
o Social Control = Positive sanctions reward conformity, while negative ones
punish deviance
,The Parts of the Social System:
The ‘building block’ approach to describing Parsons’ model of the social system sees
individual actions at the bottom; each action we perform is governed by specific
norms or rules.
These norms come in ‘clusters’ called status rules. Statuses are the positions that
exist in a given social system (e.g. a teacher) who must also follow certain norms
attributed to their role.
Status roles also come in clusters known as institutions. In turn, institutions are
grouped together into sub-systems.
For example, shops, farms, and factories all form part of the economic sub-system.
Finally, these sub-systems make up the social system as a whole.
The System’s Needs:
Parsons identifies four basic needs for the social system – GAIL:
o Goal Attainment = Society needs to set goals and allocate resources to
achieve them. This is the function of the political sub-system, through
institutions such as parliament.
o Adaptation = The social system meets its member’s material
needs through the economic sub-system.
o Integration = The different parts of the system must be
integrated together to pursue shared goals. This is the role
of the sub-system of religion, education, and the media.
o Latency = Refers to processes that maintain society over
time. The kinship sub-system provides pattern maintenance
(socialising individuals to go on performing the roles society
requires) and tension management (a place to let of steam
after the stresses of work.
Parsons describes adaption and goal attainment as instrumental needs (e.g.
producing food).
Integration and latency are described as expressive needs as they involve expression
or channelling of emotions.
Social Change:
Parsons identifies two types of society – traditional and modern – each has its own
set of norms.
For example, in modern society we pursue our individual self-interest, achieve our
status and we are all judged by the same universalistic standards (such as equality
before the law.
By contrast, in traditional societies, individuals are expected to put collective
interests first, status is ascribed, and they are judge by particularistic standards.
For Parsons, change is a gradual, evolutionary process of increasing complexity and
structural differential – the organic analogy is applicable here.
Structural differentiation = a gradual process in which separate, functionally
specialised institutions develop, each meeting a different need.
Parsons also sees gradual change as occurring through a dynamic equilibrium. As a
change occurs in part of the system, it produces compensatory change in other parts
(e.g. industrialisation brings a change in the family from extended to nuclear).
,Merton’s Internal Critique of Functionalism:
Merton criticises three key assumptions of Parsons:
o Indispensability = Parsons assumes that everything in society is functionally
indispensable in its existing form. Merton argues that this is just an untested
assumption, and he points to the possibility of ‘functional alternatives’. For
example, Parsons assumes that primary socialisation is best performed by the
nuclear family, but it may be that one-parent families or communes do it just
as well or better.
o Functional Unity = Parsons assumes that all parts of society are tightly
integrated into a single whole or ‘unity’ and that each part is functional for all
the rest and a change in one part has a knock-on effect. However, complex
modern societies have many parts, some of which may only be distantly
related. Some parts may have functional autonomy from others (e.g. the
structure of banking and the rules of netball).
o Universal Functionalism = Parsons assumes that everything in society
performs a positive function. Yet some things may be functional for some
groups and dysfunctional for others.
Merton also contributes a useful distinction between manifest and latent functions:
o Manifest = the intended function of an action or institution
o Latent = the unintended function (e.g. promoting social solidarity)
Logical Criticisms:
Critics argue that functionalism is teleological – it argues things exist because of their
effect (e.g. the family exists because children need to be socialised).
However, critics argue that a real explanation of something is one that identifies its
cause – logically, a cause must come before its effect.
Functionalism is also criticised for being unscientific. For many, a theory is only
scientific if in principle it is falsifiable by testing – this is not true of functionalism.
For example, functionalists see deviance as both dysfunctional (value consensus is
needed) and functional (reinforces social solidarity). If deviance is both functional
and dysfunctional, then the theory cannot be disproved and is unscientific.
Conflict Perspective Criticisms:
Conflict theorists such as Marxists criticise functionalism for its inability to explain
conflict and change. This failing partly stems from the organic analogy (organisms are
stable and harmonious with parts working for a common good).
Marxists argue society is not harmonious and is instead based on class division and
exploitation.
Feminists argue functionalism fails to consider the influence of the patriarchy.
Conflict theorists see functionalism as a conservative ideology legitimating the status
quo.
Critics argue the functionalist approach legitimises the privileged position of
powerful groups who would have most to lose from any fundamental changes in
society.
, Action Perspective Criticisms:
Wrong (1961) criticises functionalism’s ‘over-socialised’ or deterministic view of the
individual.
Wrong argues functionalism sees the individual without free will and are pulled by
socialisation into the social system. From an action perspective, this is fundamentally
mistaken.
The action view sees individuals create society by their interactions.
A related criticism is that functionalism reifies society – treats it as a distinct ‘thing’
over and above individual. Action approaches argue the only social reality is the one
that individuals construct by giving meaning to their worlds.
Postmodernist Criticisms:
Postmodernists argue that functionalism assumes that society is stable and orderly.
As such, it cannot account for the diversity and instability in todays’ postmodern
society.
Postmodernists reject meta-narratives such as functionalism as they see society as
increasingly fragmented.
Feminist Theory:
Feminism sees society as male dominated and it seeks to describe, explain, and
change the position of women in society.
A ‘first wave’ of feminism appeared in the late 19th century, with the suffragettes’
campaign for the right to vote.
The 1960s saw a ‘second wave’ emerge on a global scale.
Feminists criticise mainstream society for being ‘malestream’ – seeing society only
from a male perspective.
Women only account for 7% of board chairs and 6% of chief executives in the largest
companies.
In the UK, women earn £380,000 across their lifetime in comparison to £643,00 for
men.
34% of MPs and 4/5 of sex trafficking victims are female whilst 62 million girls
around the world are refused education.
These are just the recorded figures
Liberal (or reformist) Feminism:
Liberals are concerned with the human and civil rights and freedoms of the
individual.
In keeping with the Enlightenment tradition, they believe that all human beings
should have equal rights.
Reformism is the idea progress towards equal rights can be achieved by gradual
reforms or piecemeal changes in society, without the need for revolution.
Laws and policies = Liberal feminists believe women can achieve gender equality in
this way. For example, they argue that laws and policies against sex discrimination in
employment and education can secure equal opportunities for women.
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