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,Law of DelictEighth Edition
, La
Law
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Deliicct
E ghthh Ed
Eig Editiionn
J NE
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Reeseaarcch Fell
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Depaartmmennt of PPriva Free State
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fessoor of P vatee Laaw, Unniveersiity of
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Proffesssor of Priv
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C re HalH l CoColleege,, Univ
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© 202
20
IS N 978-0--63990-12220-9
SBN
eB
Boo
ok IS N 9788-0-6390-12221--6
SBN
First edittion 19990, RReprrinted 19991, 19992
Seconnd editio
e on 1994 1 4, Reeprinntedd 19995, 119966, 19997
T
Thirdd ediitionn 19999, R
Repprinteed 1999
1 9, 20001
Fourtth edditioon 20002,, Reprinnted 20002, 22003
Fifth edittion 20006, RReprrinteed 20006,, 20007
h editionn 20110
Sixth
Sevennth editi
e ion 2015
2 5
C
Copy yrighht suubsissts inn th w k. Noo paart of thiis work
his work w mayy bee repprodducedd inn any
y forrm or
o byy anny mean
m ns withow out thhe pub-
p
lisherr’s writt
w ten perm misssion.. Anny unau
u uthorrisedd repprodducttion of this
t worrk w will connstituute a coopyrrightt inffringgemeent and
reendeer thhe dooer liabl
l le un nderr botth civil aand crim
minaal law
w.
W
Whilsst evveryy efffort hhas beenn maade to eensuure thhat the
t infor
i rmaationn pubblishhed in th
his work
w k is accuurate, thhe edditorrs, ppublish-
errs an
nd print
p ters taket e no respponssibillity ffor any
a losss or dam magee sufffereed by p on as a resu
b anny perso r ult off thee relliancce up
upon the
innform
matiion cont
c taineed th hereein.
Editorr: Maandyy Jonnck
Techn
nical Edittor: Magg
M gie Talan
T nda
,Preface
Law of Delict is intended to be a comprehensive introduction to the general principles of delic-
tual liability and the most important forms of delict. It is primarily aimed at students in so far as
we sought to deal systematically and critically with the most important principles of the law of
delict. Although it was not our aim to provide an exhaustive discussion of positive law, practi-
tioners should also find the book useful since we cite and discuss the most authoritative sources
(case law and legislation).
The eighth edition of Law of Delict is a comprehensive revision and update of Neethling-
Potgieter-Visser Law of Delict (7th edition, 2015) in light of new legal authority and literature
which naturally necessitated an adaptation of legal principles and theoretical points of view. In
particular, special attention was given to the continuing debate on delictual principles that has
taken place in academic and judicial circles since the appearance of the previous edition, espe-
cially on the relationship between wrongfulness, negligence and legal causation.
The title of the book now reverts to its original title, Law of Delict, and as the name of Profes-
sor PJ (Hans) Visser (1953–2007), co-author until the fifth edition (2006), no longer appears on
the title page, we continue to honour our late colleague and friend here for his lasting contribu-
tion to the law of delict and, in particular, to this book.
Case law was updated to the July 2020 South African law reports.
We express our appreciation to Elna Brelage and Mandy Jonck of LexisNexis for their efficient
and friendly assistance with this edition of Law of Delict.
J NEETHLING
JM POTGIETER
September 2020
v
,
,Contents
Page
Preface ................................................................................................................................................... v
PART I
Introduction to the law of delict
1 General introduction
1 Delict: general nature and place in the legal system ...................................................................... 3
2 Delict and breach of contract ......................................................................................................... 6
3 Delict and crime ............................................................................................................................. 7
4 Historical development of delictual liability .................................................................................. 8
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 8
4.2 Actio legis Aquiliae ............................................................................................................... 9
4.3 Actio iniuriarum ................................................................................................................... 13
4.4 Action for pain and suffering ................................................................................................ 16
5 The law of delict, the Constitution and fundamental (human) rights ............................................. 17
PART II
General principles of the law of delict
2 Conduct
1 General ........................................................................................................................................... 27
2 Nature and characteristics of conduct ............................................................................................ 27
3 The defence of automatism ............................................................................................................ 28
4 Commission (commissio) and omission (omissio) ......................................................................... 32
3 Wrongfulness
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 35
2 Act and consequence ...................................................................................................................... 36
3 The legal convictions of the community (boni mores) as the basic test for wrongfulness ............. 39
3.1 The balancing of interests...................................................................................................... 41
3.2 A delictual criterion ............................................................................................................... 44
3.3 An objective criterion ............................................................................................................ 46
3.4 Practical application of the boni mores criterion ................................................................... 49
4 Wrongfulness as infringement of a right ........................................................................................ 55
4.1 The doctrine of subjective rights ........................................................................................... 55
4.2 The nature of a subjective right ............................................................................................. 56
4.3 Further development of the doctrine of subjective rights ...................................................... 57
4.4 Origin of subjective rights ..................................................................................................... 58
4.5 Infringement of a subjective right: requirements .................................................................. 58
5 Wrongfulness as breach of a legal duty ......................................................................................... 60
5.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 60
5.2 Liability for an omission ....................................................................................................... 64
5.2.1 Prior conduct (the omissio per commissionem rule) ................................................. 67
5.2.2 Control of a dangerous object ................................................................................... 69
5.2.3 Knowledge and foresight of possible harm .............................................................. 73
5.2.4 Rules of law .............................................................................................................. 74
5.2.5 A special relationship between the parties ................................................................ 79
vii
,viii Law of Delict
Page
5.2.6 A particular office ..................................................................................................... 81
5.2.7 Contractual undertaking for the safety of a third party ............................................. 81
5.2.8 Creation of the impression that the interests of a third party will be protected......... 83
5.2.9 Danger of limitless liability ...................................................................................... 84
5.2.10 Vulnerability to risk of damage ................................................................................ 84
5.2.11 Interplay of factors .................................................................................................... 84
5.2.12 The general wrongfulness criterion .......................................................................... 89
5.3 Breach of a statutory duty ..................................................................................................... 90
6 Wrongfulness as the reasonableness of imposing liability ............................................................. 93
7 Reconciliation of the traditional boni mores test and the new test of the reasonableness
of imposing liability ....................................................................................................................... 102
8 Grounds of justification ................................................................................................................. 106
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 106
8.2 Private defence ...................................................................................................................... 108
8.2.1 General...................................................................................................................... 108
8.2.2 Requirements for the attack ...................................................................................... 109
8.2.3 Requirements for the defence ................................................................................... 112
8.3 Necessity ............................................................................................................................... 117
8.3.1 General...................................................................................................................... 117
8.3.2 Requirements for necessity ....................................................................................... 119
8.3.3 Necessity and impossibility ...................................................................................... 123
8.4 Provocation ........................................................................................................................... 124
8.4.1 General...................................................................................................................... 124
8.4.2 Provocation in the case of physical assault ............................................................... 125
8.4.3 Provocation in cases of defamation and insult .......................................................... 127
8.5 Consent.................................................................................................................................. 128
8.5.1 General...................................................................................................................... 128
8.5.2 Characteristics of consent as a ground of justification.............................................. 129
8.5.3 Requirements for valid consent ................................................................................ 131
8.5.4 The pactum de non petendo in anticipando .............................................................. 134
8.6 Statutory authority ................................................................................................................. 135
8.7 Official capacity .................................................................................................................... 142
8.8 Execution of an official command ........................................................................................ 144
8.9 Power to discipline ................................................................................................................ 145
9 Abuse of right, nuisance and neighbour law .................................................................................. 147
9.1 Abuse of right ........................................................................................................................ 147
9.2 Nuisance ................................................................................................................................ 152
4 Fault (and contributory fault)
1 General ........................................................................................................................................... 155
2 Accountability ................................................................................................................................ 157
3 Intent .............................................................................................................................................. 159
3.1 Direction of the will .............................................................................................................. 160
3.2 Consciousness (knowledge) of wrongfulness........................................................................ 162
3.3 Motive and mistake concerning the causal chain of events ................................................... 163
4 Negligence ..................................................................................................................................... 164
4.1 Definition and nature ............................................................................................................. 164
4.2 Can negligence and intention overlap?.................................................................................. 167
4.3 Ordinary and gross negligence .............................................................................................. 168
4.4 Negligence and an omission .................................................................................................. 168
4.5 The reasonable person: characteristics .................................................................................. 169
4.5.1 General...................................................................................................................... 169
4.5.2 Children .................................................................................................................... 171
4.5.3 Experts ...................................................................................................................... 173
4.6 Negligence: foreseeability and preventability of damage ..................................................... 176
4.7 Negligence judged in the light of the surrounding circumstances ......................................... 184
4.8 Negligence and “duty of care” .............................................................................................. 188
, Contents ix
Page
4.9 Proof of negligence ............................................................................................................... 190
4.10 Relevance of negligence........................................................................................................ 192
4.11 Distinction between wrongfulness and negligence ............................................................... 193
5 Contributory fault........................................................................................................................... 198
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 198
5.2 The common law position ..................................................................................................... 198
5.3 The Apportionment of Damages Act 34 of 1956 .................................................................. 199
5.3.1 Provisions and meaning of section 1(1)(a) and (b) ................................................... 199
5.3.2 Meaning of “fault” .................................................................................................... 200
5.3.3 Meaning of “apportionment of damages” ................................................................. 201
5.3.4 Criteria for the “apportionment of damages” ............................................................ 201
5.3.5 Onus of proof ............................................................................................................ 204
5.3.6 The concept of contributory “negligence” ................................................................ 204
5.3.7 Fault in respect of “damage” or “damage-causing event” ........................................ 205
5.3.8 The provisions and meaning of section 1(3) ............................................................. 206
5.3.9 The dependant’s action ............................................................................................. 206
5.3.10 Joint wrongdoers ....................................................................................................... 206
5.3.11 Breach of contract ..................................................................................................... 207
5.3.12 Legal causation ......................................................................................................... 208
5.4 Voluntary assumption of risk and contributory fault (intent) ................................................ 208
5.4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 208
5.4.2 Relevant cases ........................................................................................................... 209
5.4.3 “Rescue” cases .......................................................................................................... 212
5 Causation
1 General ........................................................................................................................................... 215
2 Factual causation ............................................................................................................................ 216
2.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 216
2.2 Conditio sine qua non and causation by positive conduct ..................................................... 218
2.3 Logical criticism of the conditio sine qua non theory ........................................................... 219
2.4 Conditio sine qua non and causation by an omission ............................................................ 223
2.5 The flexible application of conditio sine qua non ................................................................. 226
2.6 The determination of a factual (causal) nexus ....................................................................... 228
3 Legal causation .............................................................................................................................. 230
3.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 230
3.2 The flexible approach ............................................................................................................ 233
3.3 Adequate causation ............................................................................................................... 237
3.4 Direct consequences .............................................................................................................. 238
3.5 Fault ...................................................................................................................................... 240
3.5.1 Intent as criterion for legal causation ........................................................................ 241
3.5.2 Negligence as criterion for legal causation ............................................................... 245
3.6 Reasonable foreseeability ...................................................................................................... 248
3.7 Novus actus interveniens ....................................................................................................... 250
3.8 So-called egg-skull cases (talem qualem rule) ...................................................................... 253
6 Damage
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 255
2 The compensatory function of the law of delict ............................................................................. 255
3 The concept of damage .................................................................................................................. 256
3.1 The definition of damage ...................................................................................................... 256
3.2 Extent of the concept of damage ........................................................................................... 256
3.2.1 General...................................................................................................................... 256
3.2.2 Damage includes patrimonial (pecuniary) as well as non-patrimonial
(non-pecuniary) loss ................................................................................................. 257
3.3 The relationship between patrimonial and non-patrimonial loss ........................................... 259
3.4 The relationship between damage and wrongfulness (unlawfulness).................................... 260
3.5 The relationship between damage and factual causation ....................................................... 262
, x Law of Delict
Page
4 Patrimonial (pecuniary) loss .......................................................................................................... 263
4.1 Definition of patrimonial loss................................................................................................ 263
4.2 A person’s patrimony (estate) ............................................................................................... 263
4.3 The ways in which patrimonial loss is caused ....................................................................... 264
4.4 Forms of patrimonial loss ...................................................................................................... 265
4.5 The assessment of patrimonial damage ................................................................................. 266
4.5.1 The sum-formula approach ....................................................................................... 266
4.5.2 A concrete concept of damage .................................................................................. 267
4.5.3 Time for the assessment of damage .......................................................................... 267
4.6 Prospective patrimonial damage (lucrum cessans) ............................................................... 268
4.6.1 General...................................................................................................................... 268
4.6.2 Definition and nature of prospective loss ................................................................. 268
4.6.3 Forms of prospective loss ......................................................................................... 269
4.6.4 Requirements before damages may be recovered for prospective loss ..................... 269
4.7 The “once and for all” rule .................................................................................................... 270
4.7.1 Formulation and implications of the rule .................................................................. 270
4.7.2 Exceptions to the rule ............................................................................................... 270
4.7.3 Causes of action ........................................................................................................ 271
4.7.4 Examples of causes of action and the “once and for all” rule ................................... 272
4.8 The collateral source rule and compensating advantages (res inter alios acta) .................... 273
4.8.1 General...................................................................................................................... 273
4.8.2 Summary of positive law .......................................................................................... 274
4.8.3 Explanations of the collateral source rule ................................................................. 277
4.9 Mitigation of loss .................................................................................................................. 279
4.10 Nature, object and form of damages...................................................................................... 280
4.11 Assessment of the quantum of damages ................................................................................ 282
4.11.1 General...................................................................................................................... 282
4.11.2 The assessment of damages in specific instances ..................................................... 283
4.12 Damages for loss of income or support earned illegally ....................................................... 285
4.13 Onus of proof ........................................................................................................................ 287
5 Non-patrimonial (non-pecuniary) damage or injury to personality................................................ 288
5.1 Definition of non-patrimonial loss ........................................................................................ 288
5.2 Interests of personality .......................................................................................................... 288
5.3 The general nature of non-patrimonial loss or injury to personality ..................................... 288
5.4 Assessment of non-patrimonial loss or injury to personality and other
general principles .................................................................................................................. 289
5.5 The object of damages (compensation and satisfaction) in the case of non-patrimonial
loss or injury to personality ................................................................................................... 290
5.6 Injury to personality in respect of physical-mental integrity ................................................. 291
5.6.1 General...................................................................................................................... 291
5.6.2 Theories in regard to the nature of physical-mental injury ....................................... 293
5.6.3 Cases of unconsciousness and changed personality.................................................. 294
5.7 Assessment of damages in the case of non-patrimonial loss ................................................. 298
5.7.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 298
5.7.2 Physical-mental integrity .......................................................................................... 298
5.7.3 Injury to personality in the form of iniuria ............................................................... 301
7 Delictual remedies
1 General ........................................................................................................................................... 305
2 The interdict ................................................................................................................................... 308
3 Concurrence of remedies ............................................................................................................... 309
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 309
3.2 Delictual actions .................................................................................................................... 310
3.3 Actio iniuriarum and contractual action ................................................................................ 311
3.4 Action for pain and suffering and contractual action ............................................................ 312
3.5 Actio legis Aquiliae and contractual action ........................................................................... 312
3.6 Exclusion clauses .................................................................................................................. 317
4 Prescription of remedies................................................................................................................. 318
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