AQA A Level Sociology Beliefs in Society summary notes for paper 2. This document contains a 9 sheet summary of all the 7 topics. These notes are condensed, contain the key sociologists and evaluation points as well as contemporary examples to reach the A/A* mark.
Beliefs in Society
Topic 1: Theories of religion - AO3 for Topic 2
What is religion?
➔ Substantive: Weber defines religion as a belief in a superior that is above nature and cannot be explained
scientifically. This definition is accused of western bias as it excludes Buddhism.
➔ Functional: Durkheim defines religion in terms of contribution it makes to social integration rather than any
specific definition in God. This definition is inclusive, no bias against any non-western religion.
➔ Constructionist: take on an Interpretivist approach, focusing on how members of society themselves define
religion. They’re interested in how definitions of religion are constructed, challenged and fought over.
Functionalism:
- View religion in a positive way: see religion to play a function of maintaining harmony and social cohesion.
- Durkheim: society divides itself up into sacred (forbidden and inspires feelings of awe/ fear) and the profane
(normal things with no special significance), helping with value consensus that promotes social order and stability
- Believes that when believers worship sacred symbols, they’re worshipping society itself, these symbols unite
believers into a single moral community →totemism
- Durkheim studied aboriginal societies: this tribe gathered so often to worship a sacred totem-this represented the
tribes identity →they were worshipping society and reinforcing feelings of belonging as a group
- Sacred objects in religion represent society's collective conscience- shared norms and values
- These ideas do not apply to societies where religion leads to conflict rather than solidarity
- Postmodernism: society is so fragmented that is is not meaningful to talk about collective conscience as we no
longer all share the same norms and values
- Mallowinski: religion helps overcome emotional stress that could lead to reduction in social solidarity. Religion
helps people overcome fear about events that are out of their control and also at times of life crisis
- Parsons agrees with Mallowinski and adds two other points: religion creates and legitimises societies values
and it also gives meaning to life
- Bellah: introduces civil religion- the God you believe in is not important, but that belief in God is part of being
American
- Ignores the negative aspects of religion and the fact that it can lead to conflict. Ignores how society is now diverse
Marxism:
- Religion is a conservative force and operates as an ideological weapon (ISA) used by the ruling class to
legitimise suffering of the poor as something inevitable and god-given. E.g “it is easier for a camel to pass through
the eye of a needle, than it is for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven” →creates false consciousness
- Religion is a product of alienation, acts as a ‘social opium’ which lessens pain and hardship experienced by WC
- Religion masks underlying issues of exploitation, gives promises of the afterlife and illusory happiness.
- Gramsci: religious ideas and beliefs are important for maintaining control, when the church joins forces with WC,
they can challenge the status quo and free themselves. Marxist view ignores the positive functions of religion.
Also fails to recognise that religion can lead to change e.g Martin Luther King
- Religion does not have to act as an opium of the masses: religious verses contradict the idea of wealth as
admirable, it could in fact encourage people to see capitalism as ungodly. Bible verse above ↑↑↑
- Religion is a contributing factor to the divide between the bourgeoisie and proletariat.
Feminism:
- Religious organisations: mainly male-dominated even though women participate in religion more compared to
men. Karen Armstrong views exclusion from the priesthood as evidence of women’s marginalisation.
- Places of worship: often segregate the sexes and marginalised women. In islam, menstruating women cannot
touch the Qur’an. Holm describes this as the devaluation of women in religion.
- Sacred texts: often reject anti-female stereotypes (e.g Eve - described as a temptress, causes humanity to fall
from grace) and reinforces perceptions of the women’s character. Texts largely feature male gods written by men.
- Religious laws and customs: may give women fewer rights than men e.g right to divorce, abortion, double
standards (controlling who women can marry and what they wear) Saadawi- powerful men reinterpreted religious
beliefs and ideas in order to benefit themselves
- Woodhead: propose the idea of ‘religious feminism.’ For example, the western world views the hijab worn by
Muslim women as a sign of oppression; however, to the wearer it may symbolise a resistance to oppression. It
can be a source of liberation to enter the public sphere without losing their culture. Presents women as wanting to
be taken seriously. Saadawi- describes the Hijab as a tool to oppress women. Religion promotes patriarchy.
- Many have suggested religion is becoming increasingly female-dominated. Further counter to this is from
feminists like De Beauvoir who argue women are the intended audience of ideological messages being
promoted reinforcing women’s ‘expressive role.’ Religion therefore acts as a compensator for women in exchange
for the rewards of the afterlife.
, Topic 2: Religion and social change - AO3 for Topic 1
- Weber: argues religion can sometimes change society, as opposed to Feminists and Marxists who believe
religion is a conservative force preventing social change. He argues that religion can help shape capitalism.
➔ Calvinist beliefs:
- Predestination: God has predetermined who will be saved and enter heaven, there’s nothing you
can do about it.
- Divine transcendence: God is immortal, no human can claim to know His will, this combined with
predestination creates salvation panic.
- Asceticism: abstinence and self discipline e.g nuns/ monks →live a simple life as Jesus did
- Idea of vocation: we work to glorify God’s name and we do this via methodological work in
society (as a religious duty), therefore laziness is a sin →normalises long working hours creating
modern day capitalism and shows that wealth/ success performs a psychological function.
- Bruce: religion and social protest (relationship between religion and social change)
- How has religiosity inspired change in America?:
American Civil Rights Movement (CRM) The New Christian Right (NCR)
CRM aimed to end racial segregation, black people at the time Aim of this movement is to ‘take America back to God.’ NCR
were denied legal/ political rights. Bruce argues religious has enabled the teaching of creationism - has allowed abortion
leaders were the backbone of the movement led by Martin laws to change →Roe v Wade
Luther king. The black clergy were able to shame the whites When Bruce was writing he argued that the NCR was
into changing the law due to the shared christian teaching of unsuccessful in getting members to convert. The opposite has
equality through: been seen in Trump's era where white conservative Christians
1. Taking the high moral ground: using the Bible to justify adopted the slogan ‘Make America great again’ seen as ‘taking
change e.g “love your neighbour as you love yourself” America back to God.’
2. Channelling dissent: anger of MLK death challenged
into cause
3. Acting as an honest broker: liaise to create social
change
4. Mobilising public opinion: Black churches in south
successfully campaigned for support across America
- Marxists: religion has a dual nature; maintain the status quo of capitalism and be a force for change. Marx
believed that in order for change to occur we need a revolution and a classless society.
- Religion gives hope to those living in capitalism. Engels: religion stops change but can also challenge the status
quo and encourage social change e.g fights against slavery
- Bloch: religion is an expression of the ‘principle of hope’ →it can free you of your suffering and gives promise of
happiness in the afterlife
- Liberation theology concludes that God cares about the oppressed so we need to do something about it, religion
brings change e.g Jesus describes a transformation of the world we live in
- Priests have harboured freedom fighters, set up schools and took the sides of the oppressed and mobilised
support. However, this movement has since lost its influence. Catholicism has become more conservative.
- Millenarian movements propose a religious transformation and that this change brings about the kingdom of God.
they expect an imminent transformation and that this change will work among exploited groups
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