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Summary Leadership - A communication perspective
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Summary; Leadership – A communication perspective (6th edition, Michael Z. Hackman & Craig E.Johnshon)
Chapter 1: Leadership and Communication
(Chapter takeaways (brief summary) P.33)
Leadership is all around us. Therefore it attracts universal attention. Many thinkers have theorized for
centuries how people lead one other. Leadership is an integral part of human life, in every life, so also in
every culture. Followers prosper under effective leaders and suffer under ineffective leaders no matter
what context.
As Gail Fairhurst and Robert Sarr explain, effective leaders use language as their most tangible tool for
achieving desired outcomes. Therefore leadership is best understood from a communication standpoint.
Wherever society exists, leadership exists. Leadership seems to be linked to what it means to be human.
As communication specialists (THE WRITERS OF THE BOOK), we believe that what makes us unique as
humans is our ability to create and manipulate symbols.
Communication theorist Frank Dance defines symbols as abstract, arbitrary representations of reality
agreed upon by human users. For example, there is nothing in the physical nature of this book that
mandates labelling it a ‘book’. We have agreed to use this label, or symbol to represent a bound collection
of pages; this agreement is purely arbitrary.
Words are not the only symbols we use; we attach arbitrary meanings to many nonverbal behaviours as
well. Looking someone in the eye symbolizes honesty to many North Americans. However, making direct
eye contact in some other cultures is considered an invasion of privacy. Meaning is generated through
communication.
Communication is based on the transfer of symbols, which allows individuals to create meaning. As you
read this text, the words we have written are transferred to you. The meanings of these words are subject
to your interpretation, but different factors such as cultural background, previous experience, level of
interest or writing skills of the writer could influence the perception of the message.
The goal of communication is to create a shared reality between message sources and receivers.
The “Pygmalion effect” is explained in further depth in chapter 8.
Symbols not only create reality but also enable us to communicate about the past, present, and future.
Symbolic behaviours is purposive and goal driven. We consciously use words, gestures, and other
symbolic behaviours in order to achieve our goals.
Human leadership is not predetermined as in the animal world; rather, it varies from situation to
situation and from individual to individual.
Leadership shares all of the features mentioned below:
1. Leaders use symbols to create reality. Leaders use language, stories, and rituals to create
distinctive group cultures.
2. Leaders communicate about the past, present, and future. They engage in evaluation, analysis, and
goal setting.
3. Leaders make conscious use of symbols to reach their goals.
Dean Barnlynd identified five principles that reflect the basic components of human communication (will
be written in bold)
Communication is not a thing it is a process. Communication is not constant; it is dynamic and ever
changing. Communication scholars focus on a continuous, on going process without a clearly defined
beginning or end. For example, does a conversation begin when two people enter a room? When they first
see each other?
A conversation actually “begins” with the experience, skills, feelings, and other characteristics that
individuals bring to an interaction.
Communication is not linear, it is circular. First there was only the action model of communication
where the response of the receiver was ignored. This changed quickly to the interaction model, where
,communication is described as a process of sending messages back and forth from sources to receivers
and receivers to sources.
This model was even improved to the transactional model of communication, which assumes that
messages are sent and received simultaneously by source/receiver. The on going, continuous nature of
the process of communication is implicit in this model.
For example a lecture, where the teacher gives information, and simultaneously, the teacher receives
feedback in the form of smiles and questions (positive), or with sleeping students or not paying attention
(negative).
Communication is complex.
Communication involves more than just one person sending a message to another. The process involves
the negotiation of shared interpretations and understanding. Barnlund explains that when you have a
conversation with another person there are, in a sense, six people involved in the conversation:
1. Who you think you are.
2. Who you think the other person is
3. Who you think the other person thinks you are
4. Who the other person thinks he or she is
5. Who the other person thinks you are
6. Who the other person thinks you think he or she is
Communication is irreversible. You can always apologise for what you have said, but you cannot erase
your message. Many times in the heat of an argument we say something that hurts someone. After the
argument has cooled down, we generally say we are sorry for our insensitive remarks.
Communication involves the total personality. A person’s communication cannot be viewed
separately from the person. Communication is more than a set of behaviours; it is the primary, defining
characteristic of a human being.
With many definitions of ‘leadership’ in print it is helpful to classify these conceptions into broader
categories. Four primary definitional themes emerge.
Leadership is about who you are. This definitional theme focuses on leader traits and attributes and is
one of the oldest ways of conceptualizing leadership. (“Born leaders”).
Leadership is about how you act. From this perspective, leadership is defined as the exercise of
influence of power. When others actually change, then leadership is successful.
Leadership is about what you do. Leader influence attempts are neither random nor self-centred.
Instead, leaders channel their influence and encourage change in order to meet the needs or reach the
goals of a group.
Leadership is about how you work with others. Leaders and followers establish mutual purposes and
work together as partners to reach their goals.
Combining these definitions give the following definition of leadership: Leadership is human
(symbolic) communication that modifies the attitudes and behaviours of others in order to meet
shared group goals and needs.
Leaders vs. Managers
Managers may act as leaders, but often they do not.
Management produces orderly results. Leadership on the other hand, often leads to useful change.
Like many leadership scholars, the writers believe that leaders should be ethical and swerve the common
good. Yet, they recognize that far too many individuals fall short of this standard, driven by personalized
,or harmful motives that make them more “power wielders” than leaders who serve the needs of the
group.
There are a number of reasons why leaders engage in destructive behaviour:
Selfishness à (Narcissism/Machiavellianism), Cognitive errors à bad decision making,
Environmental factors (any external factor such as competition, pressure, aggressive goals),
Kellerman identifies seven types of “bad” leaders:
Incompetent (lacking skills), Rigid (competent, but unwilling to change), Intemperate (lack of self
control, and are aided and abetted by followers), Callous (uncaring or unkind), Corrupt (lie, cheat or
steal and put self-interest ahead of public interest), Insular (minimizing or disregarding the welfare of
others outside the group/organisation), Evil (committing atrocities that inflict physical and/or
psychological harm on others).
Einarsen’s group outlines five types of leadership behaviour:
- Constructive leadership behaviour. Supports both the organisation as well as subordinates.
- Tyrannical leadership behaviour. Serves organisational goals at the expense of followers (abusive).
- Derailed leadership behaviour. Works against the interests of both the organisation and
subordinates.
- Supportive-disloyal leadership behaviour. Pro follower but anti-organisation.
- Laissez-faire leadership behaviour. Passive behaviour that undermines the organisation as well as
subordinates. (Avoiding interaction and make no effort).
The leader/follower relationship
Leaders and followers function collaboratively; they work together towards shared objectives. Leaders
get more credit if something turns out successful, but they couldn’t have done it without the help of all the
followers. Shifting some of the spotlight from leadership to followership is one way to assure that
followers get the credit they deserve, and this shift appears to be taking place.
In shared leadership, group and organisational members share the responsibility for achieving collective
goals. (2 options; two individuals share one leadership position (HP), or the whole groups takes turns in
the leadership position).
Leaders exert a greater degree of influence and take more responsibility for the overall direction of the
group. Followers, on the other hand, are more involved in implementing plans and carrying out the work.
Most people routinely shift between leader and follower functions during the course of the day.
So, followers play an active , vital role in the success of any group, organisation, or society.
Viewing leadership from a communication perspective
From the writers’ perspective, leadership is first, and foremost, a communication-based activity. It is true
that the more leadership responsibility one has, the more one’s job focuses on communication.
Willingness to communicate (WTC scale)
Leadership effectiveness depends on our willingness to interact with others and on developing effective
communication skills. Those who engage in skilful communication are more likely to influence others.
People who are shy, introvert or anxious, or lack skills get in a vicious cycle. Thinking we can’t
communicate successfully, we avoid interaction. As a consequence, we don’t get the practice we need and
therefore can’t communicate as well. We can reverse the cycle by developing our skills. Skill development
builds confidence and encourages us to talk.
Storytelling as leadership
Leaders tell their stories in a variety of informal and formal contexts, from conversations over a cup of
coffee to formal presentations. Through stories leaders can connect themselves with others, building
strong relationships and a sense of affiliation. Stories carry multiple messages. Among other functions,
they reflect important values, inspire, and describe appropriate behaviour.
There are eight general categories of stories that leaders can use to assist in achieving their goals:
, Sparking action: These stories describe how a successful change was implemented in the past allowing
listeners to imagine how such a change might work in their situation.
Communicating who you are. These stories reveal your identity to an audience, building trust and
creating a connection. (OBAMA)
Communicating the brand. These organisational stories are designed to communicate brand image to
customers.
Transmitting values. These stories reflect and reinforce organisational values by telling audience
members “how things are done around here”.
Fostering collaboration. These stories encourage people to work together by generating a narrative to
illustrate common concerns and goals.
Taming the grapevine. These stories highlight the incongruity between rumours and reality.
Sharing knowledge. These stories focus on problems and show, in detail, how corrections were made
and why the solution worked.
Leading people into the future. These stories evoke images of a desired future. Often such stories
provide limited detail while encouraging listeners to imagine what the future might be.
Emotional communication competencies.
Forgetting the emotional side of leadership, however, would be a mistake. Effective leaders are also
skilled at sharing and responding to emotions. For example, they know how to communicate affection,
liking, and excitement to followers. In addition, they know how to channel their emotions in order to
achieve their objectives and to maintain friendly group relations.
Neal Ashkanasy and Peter Jordan argue that successful leaders effectively utilize emotions at five
different levels of the organisation. (MMEO – Multilevel Model of Emotion in Organisations):
Level 1 is within the person. At this level the focus is on how leaders experience and respond to emotions.
Level 2 is between persons. Leaders differ in emotional intelligence (EI) which is the ability to perceive,
respond to, and express emotions. They use emotions to encourage, inspire, stimulate, and motivate
followers.
Level 3 is the interpersonal level. Which is concerned with interaction within dyads (duo’s) in the
organisation. Effective leaders use emotional displays to accomplish tasks.
Level 4 describes the group level. Work teams as a whole develop an “affective tone.” Formal leaders exert
direct influence on moods. The affective tone of the group as a whole improves when formal leaders
develop positive emotional relationships with individual group members.
Level 5 is the organisational level. Effective leaders at this level help create an emotional tone for the
entire organisation.
To avoid making a hasty decision in a crisis, leaders must exercise a variety of cognitive skills, such as
rejecting their faulty beliefs and assumptions, gathering facts, identifying stakeholders, soliciting a broad
range of opinions, keeping records, and perspective taking. At the same time they must employ such
emotional skills as managing stress, overcoming mental and physical fatigue, and resisting group
pressure.
Skilfully blending and thinking requires the five skills listed below.
1. Perception, appraisal, and expression of emotion. EI begins with the ability to identify, evaluate,
and then express emotional states.
2. Attending to the emotions of others. Those in a leadership role must understand the feelings of
followers in order to connect with them.
3. Emotional facilitation of thinking. Emotional states impact decision-making styles. Good mood
facilitate creative thinking, while sad moods slow the decision-making process.
4. Understanding and analysing emotional information and employing emotional knowledge. Leaders
must be able to label what they feel and recognize the relationship between that label and other
related terms.
5. Regulation of emotion. The last component of EI puts knowledge into action. This set of
competencies enables leaders to create the feelings they desire in themselves and in others. (how
to keep positive moods, and repair negative ones)
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