THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1857-1914
BACKGROUND CONTEXT
- 1870 = barely one tenth of Africa was under European control, and by 1914 only one tenth
was not under control
- The majority of the scramble for africa was taken up between 1884 (berlin west africa
conference) and 1890 (tidying agreements)
- The mindset of the europeans was that colonisation was needed for progress and civilisation,
sometimes justified by ‘social darwinism’
- “There is only the history of Europeans in Africa. The rest is darkness, and darkness is not a
subject of history” = Hugh Trevor Roper
- Missionaries - Cairns 1965, responsibility for cultural arrogance of the British people by
misrepresentation of African society in order to gain public support and subscriptions to keep
them afloat
→ Traditional view that Empire - product of desire for new foodstuffs and resources = some truth,
but the reasons are far more complex…
→ End of the 18thC : British loss of the American colonies, thus interest in Africa emerged
- “Swing to the East”
- 19thC industrial revolution : made it possible to establish footholds in these continents
REASONS FOR BRITISH EXPANSION IN AFRICA →
TRADE & THE ECONOMY
- Second half of the 19thC : main reason for expansion = trade, and the prospect of further
trade given the opening up of new routes inland and discovery of minerals and resources
- Then, further considerations emerged : investment opportunities, strategic importance,
European challenge etc… became more important in the later 19thC imperialism
Second half of the 19thC : coal, iron, timber = sought after in Africa to feed British demands
- Cycle of dependency : Britain exploited African resources to manufacture goods to sell back
to Africa
- Particularly during the economic slump of 1873 - 1896 , Europe experienced the long
depression
PERSONAL INFLUENCE
- Personal influence of British merchants
- Capitalised on commodities and the in process found wealth and fame
- Public & political interest in Africa : stemmed from these explorers
- Sense of Africa being “discovered” for the first time
STRATEGIC FACTORS
- Interlinked financial and strategic → Coastal interests in West Africa = demanded protection
(example : string of forts built along the Gold Coast and coastal defences in Sierra Leone &
Gambia)
- BUT : also purely strategic in some cases → establishment of the Cape = temperate climate
and deep water port of the Cape had advantages over other harbours and in 1806 = had
been seized by Britain to protect the sea route to the ME, China, Australia and India
,MORAL FACTORS
- “Strong moral principles” - missionaries reflecting this idea of their moral duty
- Empire = force for civilisation
- Livingstone = key example
EXPLORATION
- By 1857 : Africa had been added to European maps
- Explorers located the vast reserves, and materials - sought to exploit and trade
THE EXTENT OF BRITISH EXPANSION IN AFRICA 1857-90
UNTIL second half of the 19thC, British presence = dictated by trade not sovereignty
- Formal control represented by the British’ west african settlements (Sierra Leone and the
GC), and Cape Colony in the South
HOWEVER, between 57 and 90 - they extended their influence …
Not until the 1890s that formal British expansion really accelerated
- Period of 57-90 = desire to maintain and safeguard existing possessions as well as economic
influence
France = rival, thus led to formalisation of British control
- Companies were chartered in order to implement British claims and ensure that other
Europeans = excluded from lucrative British bases
- Only in Egypt that intervention was more direct and even here - the British still claimed acting
on the defensive
THE ROLE OF CHARTERED COMPANIES →
Mid 1850s : normal means of organising trade in the colonies
- Gov allowed trading to proceed at its own pace in the 1850s and 60s, seeing competition
between rival companies as a healthy sign of successful capitalism
BUT : attitudes changed in the 1870s with the challenge of American and European industrialisation
and the onset of the Long Depression
- Idea of a chartered company = became revived to extend British control and trade
1881 : North Borneo Trading Company= received a charter for the territory
- NB = benefited from deposits of coal, iron & copper besides the development of tobacco and
coffee plantations
- B = benefitted from the fact it represented a key strategic site for Britain in the South China
Sea at something of a mid-point between India and Hong Kong
Charter set precedent to :
1) National African Company (renamed the Royal Niger Company 1886) : permitted trade in the
lands alongside the Niger and Benue rivers BUT also permission for northward expansion
and for the company to serve as the government of the Niger region
2) Imperial British EA Company 1888
3) British SA Company 1889
Primary purpose of trading companies = generate profit for shareholders in Britain
- Led to ruthless exploitation of local people and environments
,Imperial Federation League founded in 1884 to promote colonial unity and internal imperial tariff
preference
- Despite traction in Britain = unsuccessful at overturning free trade systems that underpinned
British economic dominance in the 19thC
THE PARTITION OF AFRICA
Two conferences held to determine European’s sphere of influence and control over African territory
- Often regarded as the beginning of the scramble for Africa (partition of Africa)
1) THE BRUSSELS CONFERENCE : 1876
- King Leopold II : held at Brussels, expressed his purely altruistic and humanitarian concerns
in Africa → not true, he was concerned with economic value
- Major EU powers gathered : wanted to “discover” parts of the Congo & civilise the natives
- Disintegration due to competing interests / clashes → this disintegration caused the Berlin
Conference 1884 - 85
2) THE BERLIN CONFERENCE : 1884 - 85
- The french and germans persuaded the portuguese to discuss and determine the future of the
Congo - a region in Central Africa
- Germany was a prime mover behind the conference, and was looking to develop an overseas
empire
- Otto von Bismarch = key figure within the conference - german chancellor who unified
Germany
- King Leopold the II was the ruler of the Congo Free State - a brutal regime
What was agreed at the conference?
They created the “effective occupation agreement”, meaning you needed valid reason for
occupation
The Congo basin was internationalised, preventing France from acquiring a dominant position
Britain received
- International recognition of position in the lower and middle Niger
- Freedom of navigation for the Niger river
- June 1885 London Gazette = Niger region becomes a British protectorate (they were the
Niger power)
- They came to an agreement with Germany about the British sphere of influence in the region
Essentially, Britain has now main control in the Niger region - which means they can claim
“occupation”, and claim the region for themselves as paramount rulers.
- The french have been eliminated from the region, and the British government have dominant
position in West africa
SUCCESS in terms of European relations enabling European countries to expand their empires in an
ordered fashion without risk of conflict with one another
BUT : did not do anything for indigenous populations
- No African representation at the BC
- European ministers mapped out spheres of influence without concern for natural borders of
ethnic, linguistic or religious divisions
- SERIOUS post colonial ramifications
ALSO , no effort to combat African / Arab slave trade nor to African concerns
, - Well being and religious customs of locals = overlooked and endangered
“Salisbury himself commented on the extraordinary nature of the phenomenon. When he left
the foreign office in 1880 he said no one thought of Africa, when he returned in 1885 the whole
of Europe was quarrelling about it. Beginning to play something like the Great Game of Central
Asia.”
THE ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS
Motivated by
- Scientific intrigue
- Pure thrill of exploration
- Christian duty to be a missionary
- Desire for wealth & profit
- Power & status
No central Empire plan : acquired by accident some argue
DAVID LIVINGSTONE
- Missionary doctor in SA in 1841 but soon started exploring uncharted territories
- “I go back to Africa to try open up a path of commerce and Christianity”
- Received gov funding in 1858 with title of consul for the East Coast of Africa
- 2000 letters : spurred British imagination
JOHN KIRK
- Botanist for Zambezi expedition
- Lived rest of his career in the Sultanate of Zanzibar : commercial interest due to clove and
ivory exports
- Kirk ensured Zam acted as a British client state
- Kirk = gave Britain a toe hold on Africa’s east coast that was grown into British EA in 1895
RICHARD BURTON
- When Speke discovered Lake Victoria - Burton disagreed with him on the theory of its
connection with the Nile
- Both planned to debate it until Speke died - thus Burton went on to publish many memoirs
and books etc…
JOHN HANNING SPEKE
- Discovered Lake Victoria : but his conclusion = rejected by many not just Burton
- Committed suicide before he could debate
THE ROLE & INFLUENCE OF MISSIONARIES : CHRISTIAN IMPERIALISM →
- Could be aggressive with their claims for influence
- could help open up territories to British rule by penetrating beyond colonial frontiers ,
establishing links with locals and seeking imperial protection
Methodist missionaries : established all over the Empire
Established compounds, churches and provided housing and farm work in return for conversions to
Christianity
- Converts made to conform to western values and traditions
- Could offer locals material gains in a context of colonial destabilisation of indigenous practices
as well as education and opportunities for personal advancement
BACKGROUND CONTEXT
- 1870 = barely one tenth of Africa was under European control, and by 1914 only one tenth
was not under control
- The majority of the scramble for africa was taken up between 1884 (berlin west africa
conference) and 1890 (tidying agreements)
- The mindset of the europeans was that colonisation was needed for progress and civilisation,
sometimes justified by ‘social darwinism’
- “There is only the history of Europeans in Africa. The rest is darkness, and darkness is not a
subject of history” = Hugh Trevor Roper
- Missionaries - Cairns 1965, responsibility for cultural arrogance of the British people by
misrepresentation of African society in order to gain public support and subscriptions to keep
them afloat
→ Traditional view that Empire - product of desire for new foodstuffs and resources = some truth,
but the reasons are far more complex…
→ End of the 18thC : British loss of the American colonies, thus interest in Africa emerged
- “Swing to the East”
- 19thC industrial revolution : made it possible to establish footholds in these continents
REASONS FOR BRITISH EXPANSION IN AFRICA →
TRADE & THE ECONOMY
- Second half of the 19thC : main reason for expansion = trade, and the prospect of further
trade given the opening up of new routes inland and discovery of minerals and resources
- Then, further considerations emerged : investment opportunities, strategic importance,
European challenge etc… became more important in the later 19thC imperialism
Second half of the 19thC : coal, iron, timber = sought after in Africa to feed British demands
- Cycle of dependency : Britain exploited African resources to manufacture goods to sell back
to Africa
- Particularly during the economic slump of 1873 - 1896 , Europe experienced the long
depression
PERSONAL INFLUENCE
- Personal influence of British merchants
- Capitalised on commodities and the in process found wealth and fame
- Public & political interest in Africa : stemmed from these explorers
- Sense of Africa being “discovered” for the first time
STRATEGIC FACTORS
- Interlinked financial and strategic → Coastal interests in West Africa = demanded protection
(example : string of forts built along the Gold Coast and coastal defences in Sierra Leone &
Gambia)
- BUT : also purely strategic in some cases → establishment of the Cape = temperate climate
and deep water port of the Cape had advantages over other harbours and in 1806 = had
been seized by Britain to protect the sea route to the ME, China, Australia and India
,MORAL FACTORS
- “Strong moral principles” - missionaries reflecting this idea of their moral duty
- Empire = force for civilisation
- Livingstone = key example
EXPLORATION
- By 1857 : Africa had been added to European maps
- Explorers located the vast reserves, and materials - sought to exploit and trade
THE EXTENT OF BRITISH EXPANSION IN AFRICA 1857-90
UNTIL second half of the 19thC, British presence = dictated by trade not sovereignty
- Formal control represented by the British’ west african settlements (Sierra Leone and the
GC), and Cape Colony in the South
HOWEVER, between 57 and 90 - they extended their influence …
Not until the 1890s that formal British expansion really accelerated
- Period of 57-90 = desire to maintain and safeguard existing possessions as well as economic
influence
France = rival, thus led to formalisation of British control
- Companies were chartered in order to implement British claims and ensure that other
Europeans = excluded from lucrative British bases
- Only in Egypt that intervention was more direct and even here - the British still claimed acting
on the defensive
THE ROLE OF CHARTERED COMPANIES →
Mid 1850s : normal means of organising trade in the colonies
- Gov allowed trading to proceed at its own pace in the 1850s and 60s, seeing competition
between rival companies as a healthy sign of successful capitalism
BUT : attitudes changed in the 1870s with the challenge of American and European industrialisation
and the onset of the Long Depression
- Idea of a chartered company = became revived to extend British control and trade
1881 : North Borneo Trading Company= received a charter for the territory
- NB = benefited from deposits of coal, iron & copper besides the development of tobacco and
coffee plantations
- B = benefitted from the fact it represented a key strategic site for Britain in the South China
Sea at something of a mid-point between India and Hong Kong
Charter set precedent to :
1) National African Company (renamed the Royal Niger Company 1886) : permitted trade in the
lands alongside the Niger and Benue rivers BUT also permission for northward expansion
and for the company to serve as the government of the Niger region
2) Imperial British EA Company 1888
3) British SA Company 1889
Primary purpose of trading companies = generate profit for shareholders in Britain
- Led to ruthless exploitation of local people and environments
,Imperial Federation League founded in 1884 to promote colonial unity and internal imperial tariff
preference
- Despite traction in Britain = unsuccessful at overturning free trade systems that underpinned
British economic dominance in the 19thC
THE PARTITION OF AFRICA
Two conferences held to determine European’s sphere of influence and control over African territory
- Often regarded as the beginning of the scramble for Africa (partition of Africa)
1) THE BRUSSELS CONFERENCE : 1876
- King Leopold II : held at Brussels, expressed his purely altruistic and humanitarian concerns
in Africa → not true, he was concerned with economic value
- Major EU powers gathered : wanted to “discover” parts of the Congo & civilise the natives
- Disintegration due to competing interests / clashes → this disintegration caused the Berlin
Conference 1884 - 85
2) THE BERLIN CONFERENCE : 1884 - 85
- The french and germans persuaded the portuguese to discuss and determine the future of the
Congo - a region in Central Africa
- Germany was a prime mover behind the conference, and was looking to develop an overseas
empire
- Otto von Bismarch = key figure within the conference - german chancellor who unified
Germany
- King Leopold the II was the ruler of the Congo Free State - a brutal regime
What was agreed at the conference?
They created the “effective occupation agreement”, meaning you needed valid reason for
occupation
The Congo basin was internationalised, preventing France from acquiring a dominant position
Britain received
- International recognition of position in the lower and middle Niger
- Freedom of navigation for the Niger river
- June 1885 London Gazette = Niger region becomes a British protectorate (they were the
Niger power)
- They came to an agreement with Germany about the British sphere of influence in the region
Essentially, Britain has now main control in the Niger region - which means they can claim
“occupation”, and claim the region for themselves as paramount rulers.
- The french have been eliminated from the region, and the British government have dominant
position in West africa
SUCCESS in terms of European relations enabling European countries to expand their empires in an
ordered fashion without risk of conflict with one another
BUT : did not do anything for indigenous populations
- No African representation at the BC
- European ministers mapped out spheres of influence without concern for natural borders of
ethnic, linguistic or religious divisions
- SERIOUS post colonial ramifications
ALSO , no effort to combat African / Arab slave trade nor to African concerns
, - Well being and religious customs of locals = overlooked and endangered
“Salisbury himself commented on the extraordinary nature of the phenomenon. When he left
the foreign office in 1880 he said no one thought of Africa, when he returned in 1885 the whole
of Europe was quarrelling about it. Beginning to play something like the Great Game of Central
Asia.”
THE ROLE OF INDIVIDUALS
Motivated by
- Scientific intrigue
- Pure thrill of exploration
- Christian duty to be a missionary
- Desire for wealth & profit
- Power & status
No central Empire plan : acquired by accident some argue
DAVID LIVINGSTONE
- Missionary doctor in SA in 1841 but soon started exploring uncharted territories
- “I go back to Africa to try open up a path of commerce and Christianity”
- Received gov funding in 1858 with title of consul for the East Coast of Africa
- 2000 letters : spurred British imagination
JOHN KIRK
- Botanist for Zambezi expedition
- Lived rest of his career in the Sultanate of Zanzibar : commercial interest due to clove and
ivory exports
- Kirk ensured Zam acted as a British client state
- Kirk = gave Britain a toe hold on Africa’s east coast that was grown into British EA in 1895
RICHARD BURTON
- When Speke discovered Lake Victoria - Burton disagreed with him on the theory of its
connection with the Nile
- Both planned to debate it until Speke died - thus Burton went on to publish many memoirs
and books etc…
JOHN HANNING SPEKE
- Discovered Lake Victoria : but his conclusion = rejected by many not just Burton
- Committed suicide before he could debate
THE ROLE & INFLUENCE OF MISSIONARIES : CHRISTIAN IMPERIALISM →
- Could be aggressive with their claims for influence
- could help open up territories to British rule by penetrating beyond colonial frontiers ,
establishing links with locals and seeking imperial protection
Methodist missionaries : established all over the Empire
Established compounds, churches and provided housing and farm work in return for conversions to
Christianity
- Converts made to conform to western values and traditions
- Could offer locals material gains in a context of colonial destabilisation of indigenous practices
as well as education and opportunities for personal advancement
