Social Psychology Chapters 1-4 2023 with complete solution

Social Psychology the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another Social Thinking how we perceive ourselves and others, what we believe, judgments we make, and our attitudes Social Influence culture, pressures to conform, persuasion, and groups of people Social Relations prejudice, aggression, attraction and intimacy, and helping Social Neuroscience an interdisciplinary field that explores the neural bases of social and emotional processes and behaviors and how these processes and behaviors affect our brain and biology Culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next Social Representations a society's widely held ideas and values, including assumptions and cultural ideologies; our social representations help us make sense of our world Hindsight Bias the tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one's ability to have foreseen how something turned out; also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon. Theory an integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events; a good theory effectively summarizes many observations and makes clear predictions Hypothesis a testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events Field Research research done in natural, real-life settings outside the laboratory Correlational Research the study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables Experimental Research studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors while controlling others Independent Variable the factor in an experiment that is being manipulated Dependent Variable the factor in an experiment that is being measured Random Sample survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion Variables that could influence survey answers? unrepresentative samples, order of questions, response options, wording of questions, and framing Framing the way a question or an issue is posed; framing can influence people's decisions and expressed opinions Random Assignment the process of assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition; helps us infer cause and effect Mundane Realism degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations Experimental Realism degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its participants Deception in research, an effect by which participants are misinformed or misled about the study's methods and purposes Demand Characteristics cues in an experiment that tell the participants what behavior is expected Informed Consent an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate Debriefing in social psychology, the postexperimental explanation of a study to its participants; debriefing usually discloses any deception and often queries participants regarding their understandings and feelings Spotlight Effect the belief that others are paying more attention to our appearance and behavior than they really are Illusion of Transparency the illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others Self Concept what we know and believe about ourselves Schema a mental template by which we organize our worlds Self-Schema beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information Possible Selves images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future Influences on the self? The roles we play, the social identities we form, the comparisons we make with others, how other people judge us, & the surrounding culture Social Comparison evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others Individualism the concept of giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications Independent Self construing one's identity as an autonomous self Collectivism giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly Interdependent Self construing one's identity in relation to others Planning Fallacy the tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task Impact Bias overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events Psychological Immune System includes strategies for rationalizing, discounting, forgiving, and limiting emotional trauma Immune Neglect the human tendency to underestimate the speed and strength of the "psychological immune system" which enables emotional recovery and resilience after bad things happen Dual Attitude System differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes toward the same object; verbalized explicit attitudes may change with education and persuasion, while implicit attitudes change slowly with practice that forms new habit Self-Esteem the overall sense of self-worth we use to appraise our traits and abilities Terror Management Theory proposes that people exhibit self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural worldviews and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their mortality Self-Efficacy a sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, which is one's sense of self-worth; a sharpshooter in the military might feel high self-efficacy and low self-esteem Locus of Control the extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces Learned Helplessness the sense of hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events Self-Serving Bias the tendency to perceive oneself favorably Self-Serving Attributions a form of self-serving bias; the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors Defensive Pessimism the adaptive value of anticipating problems an harnessing one's anxiety to motivate effective action False Consensus Effect the tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors False Uniqueness Effect the tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors Group-Serving Bias explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group) Self-Handicapping protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure Self-Presentation the act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one's ideas Self-Monitoring being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression Priming activating particular associations in memory Embodied Cognition the mutual influence of bodily sensations on cognitive preferences and social judgments Spontaneous Trait Transference when we say something good or bad about another, people spontaneously tend to associate that trait with us. Belief Perseverance persistence of one's initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives Misinformation Effect incorporating "misinformation" into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it Controlled Processing "explicit" thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious Automatic Processing "implicit" thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness; roughly corresponds to "intuition" Emotional Reactions often nearly instantaneous reactions that happen before there is time for deliberate thinking Overconfidence Phenomenon the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs Confirmation Bias a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions Heuristic a thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgments Representativeness Heuristic the tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group is representing a particular member Availability Heuristic a cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory; if instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace Counterfactual Thinking imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't Illusionary Correlation perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists Illusion of Control perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are Regression Toward the Average the statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average Misattribution mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source Attribution Theory the theory of how people explain others' behavior—for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations Dispositional Attribution attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits Situational Attribution attributing behavior to the environment Spontaneous Trait Inference an effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior Fundamental Attribution Error the tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others' behavior Self-Fulfilling Prophecy a belief that leads to its own fulfillment Behavioral Confirmation a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations Attitude a favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone (often rooted in one's beliefs, and exhibited in one's feelings and intended behavior) Implicit Association Test (IAT) a computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes; the test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words; easier pairings (and faster responses) are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations Role a set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request Lowball Technique a tactic for getting people to agree to something; people who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante; people who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it Cognitive Dissonance tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions; for example, dissonance may occur when we realize that we have, with little justification, acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another Selective Exposure the tendency to seek information and media that agree with one's views and to avoid dissonant information Insufficient Justification reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is "insufficient" Self-Perception Theory the theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us—by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs Facial Feedback Effect the tendency of facial expressions to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness Over-Justification Effect the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing Self-Affirmation Theory a theory that (a) people often experience a self-image threat after engaging in an undesirable behavior; and (b) they can compensate by affirming another aspect of the self; threaten people's self-concept in one domain, and they will compensate either by refocusing or by doing good deeds in some other domain