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Samenvatting boek Gedragswetenschappen (Approaches to Psychology)
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Samenvatting Approaches to Psychology, ISBN: 9780077140069 Introductie Gedragswetenschappen (200300480)
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Samenvatting Approaches to psychology
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‘Approaches to psychology’: Test yourself questionsChapter 1 Behavior and psychology:
1. Why are different approaches to psychology necessary?
The complexity of behavior means that currently no single theory can effectively explain all aspects.
In addition, the nature of theory formation in science means that different approaches developed in
response to that complexity, but also as a result of personal and cultural factors.
2. How does perception affect the study of psychology?
Perception: the process of selection, organization and interpretation of information about the world
conveyed by the senses. Because the human brain has a limited capacity to deal with incoming
information, our perceptual system focuses on some aspects of the situation, while ignoring others.
This process of choosing stimuli is called selective attention: the perceptual process of selectively
focusing on particular stimulus elements. Researchers depend on the same perceptual processes as
other people, with the same limitations. Since studying everything is impossible, some degree of
selection is inevitable in research. And, the process of doing research involves selection in the same
sense that perception in general does. Perception affects the study of psychology, in the way that
there are developing different approaches in psychology, because of peoples different perceptions.
3. Why does psychology use the scientific method?
Psychology utilizes a form of systematic observation and analysis that is often called ‘the scientific
method’. By using the scientific method, psychology is distinguished from pursuits like astrology or
phrenology. Being a scientific method means that psychology is empirical: based on making
observations, as in an empirical theory. This means that observations can be verified by different
observers. Psychology is a public endeavor, which cannot depend on secret knowledge or mystic
inspiration. Conclusion: The scientific method offers a standardized way for psychologists to test
hypotheses, build on theories, and gain knowledge about the mind.
4. What are the differences between correlational methods and experiments?
Correlational methods involves looking at data that already exists. It is used to identify possible
relationships between factors being studied. Correlations can enable researchers to make sense out
of what might otherwise seem a jumble of data.
Experiments: a research design in which the experimenter uses a controlled situation and
manipulates one or more factors (called independent variables) in order to determine their effect on
one or more measures of behavior (called dependent variables).
Differences:
The correlational method is useful where experiments cannot operate because of practical or
unethical limitations.
Experiments are permitted to make interpretation of causation, for the correlational method
it isn’t possible to interpret cause of observed behavior.
Experiments are often more expensive and difficult than the correlational method.
Chapter 2 The biological approach:
1. What is a ‘split brain’? How does studying this add to our knowledge of how the brain
works?
Cerebral hemispheres: two half spheres, made up of the cortex and underlying structures, which
comprise the major portion of the brain.
Corpus callosum: a wide band of nerve fibres which connect the two hemispheres.
People with a split brain have cut fibres in the corpus callosum between the hemispheres. Studying
split brains helps to identify differences in the functions of the two sides of the brain.
, 2. What effects does stress have on health?
One of the clear implications of research on stress is that our behavior can affect our health. The
stress response originated as a means of coping with physical danger, and its evolutionary survival
suggests the mechanism is basically adaptive. However, it also creates two major problems:
1. For modern humans the ‘danger’ may often be psychological rather than physical and hence
no physical response is either required or appropriate. This means that one is left with a
surge of activity-oriented chemical changes, and no outlet for the energy.
2. The stress response may carry beyond the moment of crisis, and chronic stress can have
negative effects. There are a wide range of disorders that seem to be affected by stress
responses: heart disease, viral infections, asthma and rheumatoid arthritis.
Chapter 3 The behaviorist approach:
1. What is the meaning of the following terms?
a. Unconditioned stimulus: in classical conditioning, a stimulus which elicits a reflexive
(unconditioned) response.
b. Conditioned stimulus: in classical conditioning, a stimulus which by repeated pairings
with an unconditioned stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response.
c. Unconditioned response: in classical conditioning, a reflexive response produced by a
specific stimulus, such as pupil contraction to bright light.
d. Conditioned response: in classical conditioning, a response to a previously neutral
stimulus which has become a conditioned stimulus by repeated pairing with an
unconditioned stimulus.
e. Conditioned emotional response: an emotional response such as fear which is
established trough classical conditioning.
2. What are the differences and similarities between classical and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning: the study of learning which involves reflex responses, in which a neutral
stimulus comes to elicit an existing reflex response.
Operant conditioning: in the behaviorist approach, the form of learning concerned with changes in
emitted responses (voluntary behavior) as a function of their consequences.
Similarity: They are both forms of associative learning.
Differences:
- Classical conditioning involves an involuntary response, while operant conditioning is about
voluntary behavior.
- In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical
conditioning involves no such rewarding’s.
- By classical conditioning the learner is passive, while operant conditioning requires the
learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or
punished.
3. Why is punishment not recommended in reducing misbehavior in children?
Punishment: in operant conditioning, a process whereby a response is followed by a negative
reinforcer, which results in a decrease in the probability of the response.
Punishment is not recommended in reducing misbehavior in children, because it’s possible that the
child will continue to misbehave. A child will receive a positive reinforcer from the punishment,
because attention is a powerful positive reinforcer.
4. How does biology constrain learning?
Research on biological constraints on learning has suggested that there are limits to the generality of
conditioning principles, as illustrated by the concept of preparedness: a concept developed by Martin
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