Extensive summary of the first 4 problems including in depth questions and answers. With side notes showing what the tutor or coordinator mentioned was important. Grey colored parts might not be extremely important.
Problem 1 – The Best and The Rest Grey and small text = probably less important
A Theory of Individual Differences in Task and Contextual Performance – Motowidlo Borman
Learning goals: What is job performance? (Definition, diff types of performance). What are diff assessment methods of performance? (biases, validity & reliability,
instruments, strengths, and weaknesses).
Basic Assumptions about Job Performance (JP) (degree to which an individual helps the organization reach its goals). JP
is behavioral, episodic, evaluative and multidimensional.
1. Performance is a behavioral construct – Behavior, performance and outcome = B.P.O are not the same things.
Behavior is what people (pp) do while at work e.g., selling things, changing engines. Not every behavior is subsumed
under the performance concept, but only behavior which is relevant for organizational goals.
Performance is behavior with an evaluative component, behavior that can be evaluated as positive or negative for
individual or organizational effectiveness. What the organization hires one to do and do well. It is not defined by the
action itself but by judgmental and evaluative processes. It’s not stable over time, there’s variability in performance.
Outcome aspect/results: consequence or result of the individual’s behavior which contributes to or detract
organizational goal accomplishment e.g., sales figures, nmbrs of engines assembled. Behavioral aspect of
performance overlap with but is not the same as the outcome aspect, outcome aspects of performance also
depend on factors other than one’s behavior:
One can have a high behavioral quality (e.g., teaching students perfectly) but the outcome of it might not be
effective (e.g., two kids with LD and they did not learn). Or the behavioral aspect might be unsatisfactory (e.g.,
salesperson has no idea about the phone they’re selling) but have a satisfactory outcome (e.g., pp are interested in
the phone no matter what – high demand).
2. Performance is episodic (occurs occasionally and at irregular intervals)
Work behavior is a continuous stream but only some of the behaviors contributes to organization and those are
episodic (Performance episodes).
• Pp do many things that neither help nor hinder the organization accomplish its goals (e.g.,
taking a lunch break)
• Performance episodes/distinguished from behavioral episodes are identified how?
Newtson et al: Pp naturally segment behavior into discrete units to process social info.
Pp perceive behavior as a series of coherent action units separated by breakpoints that
define their clear beginnings and endings e.g., putting op pomodoro timer and study = clear
beginning and end.
These performance behavior episodes are evaluative:
• Only behavioral episodes that make a (positive/negative) difference to organizational goal
accomplishment are part of the performance domain and considered job performance.
• Also embraces behaviors that have negative effects and that have positive
effects for organizational goal accomplishment.
Organizations have goals that are not necessarily known or agreed upon by all organizational
members. Also, organizations frequently have multiple goals that are unrelated to each other, thus
some fulfilled goals might have no effect on other goals/ might detract from other goals.
It’s important to think about behavioral episodes because it’s easy to identify e.g., critical incidents
or (in)effective work behaviors with enough distinction (for employees) this way.
3. Performance domain is behaviorally multidimensional
When expressed in terms of total utility for organizational goal accomplishment, job performance
episodes are unidimensional. However, there are many diff kinds of behaviors that would
advance/hinder organizational goals and lumping them all together produces are psychologically
intractable hodge-podge.
Solution to this dilemma = organize the performance domain in task performance and contextual performance ↓
Results are the route through which an individual's performance helps or hinders an organization in reaching its goals
→ makes it appealing to focus on results when considering individual performance. There are two important reasons,
however, why a performance model should not:
o States of things or pp that are changed by performance are also affected by other
extraneous factors that are not under the individual performer's control.
o Some behaviors can be effective for the company, but some could be detrimental.
A behavioral focus is necessary to develop a psychological understanding of selection processes and
, 2
apply the full range of psychological principles and tools to the problem of prediction most fruitfully.
Recap: explain the following in depth questions/ keywords: What are the basic assumptions about job performance?
Behavior (BPO), episodic performance, evaluative, multidimensional.
A Theory of Individual Differences in Task and Contextual Performance
Coordinator said important: Causal Model by Motowidlo: 2 dimensions useful for identifying and defining underlying
dimensions of the behavioral episodes that make up the performance domain. In either case, the behaviors’
contribution values represent their ultimate effects on organizational goals accomplishment, but through 2 quite diff
means:
1. Task Performance (core job responsibilities of an employee), two types:
Execution: activities that transform raw materials Maintaining: activities that service and maintain the
into the goods and services that are the technical core by replenishing its supply of raw materials
organization's products e.g., selling merch in retail e.g., distributing finished products to store or organizing,
store, performing surgery in hospital, cashing check planning, co-ordinate staff functions that enable it to
in a bank. function effectively and efficiently.
Thus, task performance is multi-dimensional and bears a direct relation to the organization’s technical core, either by
executing its technical processes or by maintaining and servicing its technical requirements. The reason task behaviors
have positive contribution values is either that they help the transformation of raw materials into goods or services, or
they directly service the organization's technical core and improve its capability to produce accordingly.
2. Contextual Performance (CP: ability of employees to contribute to the overall well-being of the organization).
Contextual performance (CP): activities which do not contribute to the technical core, but which support the social,
and psychological environment in which organizational goals are pursued (e.g., helping coworkers, being a reliable
member of the organization, volunteering to carry out task activities that are not formally part of the job).
The reason contextual behaviors have positive contribution values is that they maintain or improve the
organizational, social, or psychological environment necessary for the technical core to function effectively and
efficiently.
Dynamic: prosocial behavior, stabilizing performance, taking charge/initiative.
Variability in an individual’s performance over time reflects: 1. learning processes and other long- term changes and 2. temporary changes in
performance.
- CP does not contribute through the organization's core technical processes, but it does maintain the broader organizational, social, and
psychological environment in which the technical core must function.
- CP is related to more extra roles than task performance.
Personality affects CP & motivation (are you just doing what is asked of you or are you pro-active and aim at
changing/improving work procedures and organizational processes) ↔ Cognitive abilities affect task performance.
Important aspect of the causal model is that kind of traits and Good to
know:
characteristic adaptations that are related to task performance question
are diff from the kinds of traits and characteristic adaptations about this
in exam
that are related to contextual performance. See figure →
Figure also includes 2 categories of basic tendencies: cognitive
ability and personality. Some crossover effects: although the
strongest effects of cognitive ability are on task performance,
cognitive ability also has some effect on contextual
performance, this is the same the other way around.
Contextual knowledge = know facts, principles, and procedures
for effective action in situations that call for helping and
cooperating with others.
Contextual skill = actually carrying out actions known to be
effective for handling situations that call for helping and
coordinating with others.
Contextual Habits: patterns of responses that either facilitate or
interfere with effective performance in contextual work situations incl. characteristic tendencies to approach/avoid
various types of interpersonal and group situations, preferred ways of handing conflict, interpersonal and political
styles. When we interact with others, the context in which our actions take place plays a major role in our habits. Our
understanding of objects, words, emotions, and social cues may differ depending on where we encounter them.
, 3
Task knowledge shaped by cognitive ability: pp with high levels of it are more likely to master/remember facts,
principles, and procedures if they’re provided with opportunities to learn them.
Task skill is skill in actually using technical info, performing technical procedures, handling info, making judgments,
solving problems and making decisions related to core technical functions. It involves skill in apply relevant technical
knowledge to perform the necessary actions smoothly, quickly and without error.
Task work habits: patterns of behavior that pp learn over time and can facilitate/interfere with the performance of
behaviors that contribute to the accomplishment of organizational goals.
→ boost or hinder performance e.g., hinders if the habit is to take 1 hour breaks instead of 30 min or taking
shortcuts in task execution instead of going through the trouble to do the task as it should be done. Habits can
be unconscious e.g., being a salesperson trained to deal with angry customers, sometimes old habits kick in
and salesperson might still react defensive and hostile.
Task work habits = patterns of responses to task situations that either facilitate or interfere with the performance of
task behaviors. Include characteristic ways of using technical info, performing technical procedures, making decisions
etc. Also include motivational task habits such as characteristic tendencies to exert high or low levels of effort.
Cognitive ability should also have some effect on the acquisition of contextual knowledge to the extent that info
processing, memory processes and decision making are important for determining that one kind of
interpersonal/social response is more effective than another.
Three basic assumptions are associated with the differentiation between task and contextual performance (Borman &
Motowidlo, 1997; Motowidlo & Schmit, 1999):
(1) Activities relevant for task performance vary between jobs whereas contextual performance activities are
relatively similar across jobs;
(2) task performance is related to ability, whereas contextual performance is related to personality and
motivation;
(3) task performance is more prescribed and constitutes in-role behavior, whereas contextual performance is
more discretionary and extra-role.
Sonntag and Frese: 3 perspectives on Performance (coordinator said important):
these perspectives are not mutually exclusive but approach the performance phenomenon from diff angles which
complement one another. Researchers often combine 2 or more approaches when explaining performance.
Organization level: Organizations need highly performing pp Individual level: Accomplishing tasks and performing at a high level can be a source of
in order to meet their goals, to deliver the products and satisfaction, with feelings of mastery and pride. Low performance is usually experienced as
services they specialize in, and to achieve an advantage. personal failure. Performance is often rewarded by e.g., recognition or financial rewards.
Individual performance changes= result of learning. Performance initially increases with increasing time spent in a job and later reaches a plateau:
Early phases of skill acquisition performance relies largely on the Transition stage: when pp are Maintenance stage: when the knowledge and skills
availability of declarative knowledge and the optimal allocation of new in a job and when the needed to perform the job are learned and when
limited attentional resources. Whereas later in the skill acquisition tasks are novel. (Cognitive task accomplishment becomes automatic. (Cognitive
process, performance largely relies on automatic processing, abilities are important) ability becomes less important and motivation,
procedural knowledge and psychomotor abilities. interests and values increase in relevance)
However, there is no uniform pattern of performance development over time.
Additionally, there is short term-variability in performance due to changes in
one’s psycho-physiological state caused by e.g., long work hrs, sleep shortage etc.
1. Theory of Individual Differences Perspective with a focus
on individual characteristics (e.g., general mental ability,
personality) as sources for variation in performance.
Individual performance is something organizations want to
enhance and optimize. Core question: which pp perform
best? Meta analytic evidence: pp with high cognitive abilities perform better than pp with low cognitive abilities
across a broad range of diff jobs. Assumption = underlying mechanism of cognitive ability helps to acquire job
knowledge + skills which in turn have a positive impact on job performance.
Individual diffs in personality and cognitive ability variables, in combo with learning experiences, lead to variability
in knowledge, skills, and work habits that mediate effects of personality and cognitive ability on job performance.
An especially important aspect of this theory is that it predicts that the kinds of knowledge, skills, work habits, and
traits that are associated with task performance differs from the kinds that are associated with contextual
performance.
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