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Summary Issues and Debates Notes
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AQA Psychology Paper 3 - notes on Issues and Debates topic including AO1 and AO3
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Gender BiasAO1 - knowledge AO3 - evaluation
Universality and bias Weakness - Biological versus social explanations
Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) presented the findings of several gender studies which concluded that girls
Psychologists possess beliefs and values that have been influenced by the social have superior verbal ability whereas boys have better spatial ability. They used this information to suggest
and historical context within which they live. This means that, like the rest of us, that these differences were ‘hard-wired’ into the brain before birth. Joel et al. (2015) used brain scanning to
they are subject to biases, undermining the ‘facts’ that psychology claims to disprove this, as there were no structural differences. Maccoby and Jacklin’s research was so readily
accepted as it fitted into predetermined gender stereotypes. Gender stereotypes are presented incorrectly as
prove. It also undermines psychology’s claims to universality - that the fixed and enduring.
conclusions drawn can be applied to anyone, anywhere and at any time. However, this doesn’t mean that psychologists should not study gender differences in the brain. Ingalhalikar
et al. (2014) suggest that the popular stereotype that women are better at multitasking may have some truth
to it as they have more connections between the left and right hemisphere. There may be biological
Gender bias differences but they shouldn’t be exaggerated.
Alpha bias within psychological research exaggerates the differences between
the sexes, usually devaluing females in comparison to their male counterparts. Weakness - Sexism in research
The sociobiological theory of relationship formation, for example, states that Gender bias in psychology promotes sexism in the research process. Murphy et al. (2014) found that
human attraction is based on the principle of ‘survival efficiency’. Males women are underrepresented in university departments and lecturers in psychology are more likely to be
impregnate as many females as possible to increase the chances of genes being men. This means that research is carried out mostly by men who already have preconceived biases. The
institutional structures and methods of psychology may produce findings that are gender-biased.
passed on. Females try to care for the very few offspring they have. As a result,
there is a misconception that women should not be promiscuous as it goes
Weakness - Gender-biased research
against their nature. Research challenging gender bias is often not published. Formanowicz et al. (2018) analysed more than
Beta bias minimises differences between the sexes, usually when females are 1000 articles related to gender bias, published over 8 years. Research on gender bias is funded less often
not part of the research process and then the results are generalised to them. and is published by less prestigious journals. This means that scholars become less aware of it and take less
Early research into the flight or fight response was based solely on males and measures to mitigate it, perpetuating the bias. Gender bias in psychology is not even taken seriously.
generalised but more recent research by Taylor et al. suggests that females have
inhibited the fight or flight response, being more caring and defensive instead. Understanding bias
Gender bias creates misleading assumptions about female behaviour and psychological research fails to
adequately challenge these negative stereotypes. In any domain where men set the standard for normalcy,
Androcentrism as Carol Tavris (1993) puts it, ‘it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal.’ Gender bias has real,
This is a consequence of beta bias. If all research into ‘normal’ behaviour is damaging consequences for real women.
based on males, then feminine behaviour is deemed ‘abnormal’. For example, However, it’s also true that modern researchers have become increasingly aware of how their bias affects
many feminist commentators argue that PMS is a social construction that their work. Rather than seeing it as an issue, they view it as a crucial part of the research process. For
instance, in their study of the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms, Dambrin and
medicalises female experience, when male anger is rationalised. Lambert (2008)include reflection on how their gender-related experiences influence their reading of events.
, Cultural Bias
AO1 - knowledge AO3 - evaluation
Universality and bias (revisited) Weakness - Classic studies
Many of the most influential studies in psychology are culturally-biased. Asch and Milgram’s research were
Henrich et al. (2010) reviewed hundreds of studies in leading psychology conducted exclusively with US participants who were primarily white and middle-class. Later replication in
journals and found that 68% of research participants came from the United collectivist cultures found significantly higher rates of conformity than the original study in the US (Smith and
States, and 96% from industrialised nations. Arnett (2008) found that 80% of Bond 1993). This means that our entire understanding of topics like social influence can only be applied to
individualist cultures.
research participants were undergraduates studying psychology. This means that However, media globalisation in the modern has caused a cultural homogenisation that has removed the
there is a significant culture bias in psychology. individualist-collectivist distinction. Takano and Osaka (1999) found that 14 out of 15 studies that compared
Henrich coined the term WEIRD to describe those most likely to be studied - the US and Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism. Culture bias may be less of an issue
with modern psychological research.
Westernised, Educated people from Industrialised, Rich Democracies. If they
become the norm, then others become ‘inferior’ or ‘unusual’.
Ethnocentrism Strength - Cultural psychology
Cultural psychology is, according to Dov Cohen (2017), the study of how people shape and are shaped by
This refers to the belief that one’s own culture is superior to others. cultural experience. This is an emerging field that incorporates work across disciplines and attempts to
Ainsworth’s (1970) Strange Situation is criticised for reflecting only the norms and overcome ethnocentric assumptions by taking an emic approach instead, using local researchers and
values of Western culture. Moderate ‘separation anxiety’ became a sign of secure culturally-based techniques. This suggests that modern psychologists are more mindful of the dangers of
cultural bias.
attachment but this did not reflect other child-rearing styles. In Japan, for
example, infants were labelled as insecurely attached by they demonstrated more
distress on separation, instead of acknowledging cultural differences.
Weakness - Ethnic stereotyping
Jay Gould (1981) explained how intelligence tests led to eugenic social policies in the US. Psychologists
Cultural Relativism piloted IQ tests on 1.75m army recruits in WW1 and involved ethnocentric questions, like the names of US
Norms and values and ethics can only be meaningfully understood within specific presidents. Recruits from south-eastern Europe and African-Americans scored the lowest and this was used
to inform racist discourse about the genetic inferiority of particular culture groups. Ethnic minorities were
social and cultural contexts. considered ‘feeble-minded’ and were denied educational and professional opportunities. Psychological
Berry (1969) has drawn a distinction between etic and emic approaches in the research encourages a cultural bias that can be used to justify extreme prejudice.
study of human behaviour. Etic looks at behaviour from outside a given culture
and describes it as universal. Emic functions within a culture and is specific to it.
Ainsworth’s research as well as definitions of abnormality are examples of Relativism versus universality
imposed etic. Cross-cultural research is beneficial in that in challenges individualist ways of thinking and viewing the world.
It helps form a better understanding of human nature.
Berry argues that psychologist need to be more mindful of cultural relativism in However, it should be assumed that all psychology is culturally relative. Ekman (1989) suggests that basic
order to prevent cultural bias. facial expression for emotions are universal. Forms of attachment such as interactional synchrony can be
considered universal.
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