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Summary BTEC Applied Science Unit 8 Assignment A
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MaryamUnit 8: Physiology of Human Body Systems
Introduction
The musculoskeletal system consists of the skeleton, muscles, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints, and
other connective tissues that support and bind tissues and organs together. [1] They work together, acting
as a framework for muscles and soft tissues to attach to, allowing movement/posture and protection of
vital organs.
Different types of bones
There are five different types of bones [2] in the human body:
Bone type Description: structure/ function
Long bone [3] e.g., femur, ulna, humerus, They have a long, thin shape. Long bones support
radius, fibula, tibia weight and facilitate movement, with the help of
muscles. They are made up of a long shaft, called the
diaphysis, and two wider ends, called the epiphyses.
Long bones are found in the arms, legs, fingers, and toes
and provide support, mobility, and protection for the
body. The outer layer of long bones is made up of
compact bone, while the inner layer is composed of
spongy bone, which contains bone marrow. The bone
marrow is responsible for producing new blood cells.
Long bones also contain periosteum, a tough membrane
that covers the outer surface of the bone, and endosteum,
a thin membrane that lines the inside of the bone. Blood
vessels and nerves also run through the long bone to
nourish the bone tissue and facilitate movement. They
play a critical role in the skeletal system and help to
maintain the structure and function of the human body.
Short bone [4] e.g., carpals, tarsals They are cube shaped and allow movement of the wrists
and ankles by providing stability to the complex joints.
The structure of a short bone includes a thin outer layer
of compact bone and a spongy inner layer filled with
bone marrow. The bone marrow produces new blood
cells, which are essential for maintaining the health of
the body. Short bones play a crucial role in supporting
and stabilizing the body, especially in areas like the
wrists, ankles, and toes. Their shape allows for smooth
and precise movements, and their size makes them
important for distributing weight and absorbing shock.
Short bones also contain periosteum, a tough membrane
that covers the outer surface of the bone, and endosteum,
a thin membrane that lines the inside of the bone. These
membranes are important for bone growth and repair, as
well as for providing nourishment to the bone tissue.
Flat bone [6] e.g., cranium, sternum, Flat bones are thin and flat, sometimes with a slight
scapula, pelvis curve. They protect your internal organs or act as a point
of attachment for muscles. They are primarily located in
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areas that require protection or provide a broad surface
for muscle attachment. Examples of flat bones include
the skull, sternum, scapulae, and ribs. The structure of
flat bones includes an outer layer of compact bone and
an inner layer of spongy bone, which contains bone
marrow. Flat bones have a relatively broad surface area,
which allows for the attachment of muscles and the
protection of underlying organs. In addition to their
protective and supportive functions, flat bones also play
a role in producing blood cells. The bone marrow within
flat bones is responsible for producing red blood cells,
white blood cells, and platelets, which are essential for
maintaining the health of the body.
Irregular bone [3] e.g., vertebrae, maxilla, Irregular bones vary in shape and structure to also
mandible protect internal organs they do not fit into the categories
of long, short, or flat bones. They have complex shapes
and often serve specialized functions. Examples of
irregular bones include the vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx,
and many bones of the face. The structure of irregular
bones varies depending on their location and function,
but typically includes an outer layer of compact bone
and an inner layer of spongy bone. They also contain
bone marrow, which produces blood cells. Irregular
bones have various functions in the body, including
protection of vital organs, support for body structures,
and attachment sites for muscles. For example, the
vertebrae protect the spinal cord and provide support for
the body, while the bones of the face provide structure
and support for the features of the face.
Sesamoid bone [3] e.g., patella (kneecap) Sesamoid bones are small, round bones that are found
embedded within certain tendons or muscles in the
human body. They are usually located near joints, where
they act as pulleys to help muscles and tendons move
more efficiently. The most well-known sesamoid bones
are the patellae (kneecaps), which are located in the
tendons that attach the thigh muscles to the lower leg
bone. Other examples of sesamoid bones include the
small bones found in the hands and feet. The structure of
sesamoid bones includes an outer layer of compact bone
and an inner layer of spongy bone, which may or may
not contain bone marrow. The bones are relatively small
and flat and may be oval or round. The function of
sesamoid bones is to protect tendons and reduce friction
as they move across joints. By providing a smooth
surface and acting as a pulley, sesamoid bones allow for
more efficient movement and help to reduce the risk of
injury or damage to the tendon, such as strain.
Axial and appendicular skeleton
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An infant skeleton has almost a hundred more bones than the skeleton of an adult. The skeleton system is
divided [5] into two sections: the axial and appendicular skeletons.
The axial skeleton is rigid and serves as the main core of the skeletal system and allows movement. The
axial skeleton is composed of 80 bones and consists of the skull, vertebral column, and ribcage. The skull
consists of the cranium and facial bones, which protect the brain and the sense organs, respectively. The
cranium is made up of eight bones that form a protective shell around the brain. The facial bones provide
the structure for the face and protect the eyes, nose, and mouth. The vertebral column, also known as the
spine, is composed of 33 individual bones called vertebrae. The vertebrae are separated by intervertebral
discs, which act as shock absorbers and allow for flexibility of the spine. The vertebral column provides
support for the body and protects the spinal cord, which is a crucial component of the nervous system.
The ribcage is composed of 24 ribs, the sternum, and the thoracic vertebrae. The ribcage protects the heart
and lungs, which are essential organs for breathing and circulation. The sternum, or breastbone, is a flat
bone that connects the ribs in the front of the body. The function of the axial skeleton is to provide
support and protection for the organs of the head, neck, and torso. It also allows for movement of the head
and torso and provides attachment sites for muscles involved in breathing and other vital functions. The
cranium is the part of the skull that encloses the brain. This protects the brain from trauma that might
otherwise cause brain damage. Additionally, it supports the parts of the head that support the eyes and
nasal passageways. it is connected to the spinal cord via the occipital bone. The temporal bone protects
nerves and structures in the ears, which help with hearing and overall balance.
The appendicular skeleton is composed of 126 bones and consists of the bones of the limbs, as well as the
bones that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton. The upper limb is composed of the humerus, radius, ulna,
carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges. The lower limb is composed of the femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals,
metatarsals, and phalanges. The function of the appendicular skeleton is to facilitate movement and
mobility, as well as manipulation of the environment. The upper limb is involved in reaching and
grasping, while the lower limb is involved in standing, walking, and running. The appendicular skeleton
consists of the shoulder girdle, arm, leg, hand, foot, and pelvic girdle. Of the 206 bones in the adult
human body, a total of 126 bones forms the appendicular skeleton. The appendicular skeleton is the part
of our skeleton that attaches to our axial skeleton and includes our limbs and the bones that connect them
to our body. It is composed of four major regions: the pectoral girdle, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle,
and the lower limbs. The pectoral girdle, also known as the shoulder girdle, is located at the superior
(upper) part of the appendicular skeleton and consists of two bones: the clavicle (collarbone) and the
scapula (shoulder blade). The clavicle connects the shoulder girdle to the sternum (breastbone), while the
scapula forms the back part of the shoulder girdle. The pectoral girdle provides attachment sites for many
muscles that move the upper limb, as well as a point of articulation for the upper limb to the rest of the
skeleton. The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand, and is attached to the pectoral
girdle via the shoulder joint. The humerus bone in the upper arm connects to the ulna and radius bones in
the forearm, which then connect to the carpals (wrist bones), metacarpals (palm bones), and phalanges
(finger bones) in the hand. These bones provide us with the ability to perform fine motor skills such as
writing, typing, and grasping objects. The pelvic girdle, or hip girdle, is located at the inferior (lower) part
of the appendicular skeleton and consists of two hip bones, which connect the lower limbs to the axial
skeleton at the sacrum bone. The pelvic girdle is designed to support the weight of the upper body, protect
the internal organs of the lower abdomen, and provide attachment sites for many muscles that move the
lower limb. The lower limb consists of the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot, and is attached to the pelvic girdle
via the hip joint. The femur bone in the thigh connects to the tibia and fibula bones in the leg, which then
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