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Summary of Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications
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Sport motivation & sport performance0HK00 ~ Summary
Chapter 1: Foundations of Sport Psychology
Positive psychology : An approach to human behaviour that focuses upon wellness and not
merely the absence of disease.
Evidence-based practice : underscores that sound application and practice must be based
upon good science.
Sport and exercise psychology defined
Sport and exercise psychology : the study of the effect of psychological and emotional factors
on sport and exercise performance and the effect of sport and exercise involvement on
psychological and emotional factors.
History of sport psychology (in North-America)
The first clear research was done in 1897 by Norman Triplett. He analyzed the performance
of cyclists under conditions of social facilitation/
The first “sport psychologist” is Coleman Griffith, “the father of sport psychology in North
America” --> First sport psychology laboratory in 1925.
1950-1980 : the formative years of sport psychology.
Bruce Ogilvie : “The father of applied sport psychology”.
Rainer Martens : “The father of modern sport psychology”.
History of sport psychology (in Europe)
Pierre de Coubertin : introduced the term sport psychology. He is “the father of sport
psychology in Europe”.
Piotr Antonovich Roudik : founded a sport psychology laboratory in the Soviet Union in 1925.
Issues of certification + different categories
The sport psychology registry was developed to identify 3 categories in which a person can
demonstrate competence :
o The clinical/counseling sport psychologist : a person trained in clinical or counseling
psychology that may be a licensed psychologist. Important factors are the
understanding of athletic experience and knowledge of emotional and personality
disorder problems.
o The educational sport psychologist : a person who has mastered the knowledge
base of sport psychology, and who serves as a practitioner.
o The research sport psychologist : a person who helps create a credible scientific
body of knowledge within sport psychology.
Ethics in sport psychology
When the sport psychologist is called upon to provide services such as crisis counseling,
psychotherapy, or psychological testing, it is important that that person be specifically trained and
licensed.
Accreditation issues
AASP should provide leadership for a movement to accredit university sport psychology programs.
Accreditation is the only way to ensure quality and consistency of academic training.
Multicultural issues related to Race
Diversity : People from diverse cultural backgrounds are represented in any group
Inclusiveness : Individuals are not excluded from a group based on their race, gender, sexual
orientation, etc.
The issue of race in sport psychology
Applied sport psychology should attract into the field more individuals from different races.
, Sport motivation & sport performance
0HK00 ~ Summary
Race thinking (thinking about race issues, not racist) vs. Racist thinking
Cultural competence : the sport psychologist understands his client’s racial identity, his own
racial identity, and the role that race and cultural ethnicity play in the athlete/consultant
relationship.
Encultured : being born and raised in a particular group or culture.
Acculturated : learning to look at the world through a multicultural lens.
Multicultural training in sport psychology
Graduates of sport psychology programs should be adequately trained in issues that relate to
culture and race.
Multicultural training should be provided in 4 domains :
o Students should experience a heightened awareness of and sensitivity to cultural
groups different from their own.
o Students should gain knowledge about people who belong to cultures different from
their own.
o Students should learn helping and intervention skills through role playing and
simulated interaction.
o Each student should experience a supervised practicum to gain hands-on experience
working with members of a different culture or race.
Two basic strategies for addressing the cultural disparity between athletes and applied sport
psychologists are :
o Universalistic model : endorses the concept of teaching prospective sport
psychologists cultural sensitivity and how to be culturally competent.
o Cultural compatibility model : proposes to address multicultural issues by matching
the background of the counselor with the background of the athlete.
Multicultural issues related to Gender
Gender and feminist issues
Four themes :
Gender is relational rather than categorical
Gender is inextricably linked with race, class, etc.
Gender and cultural relations involve power and privilege
Feminism demands action
Sexual orientation in sport psychology
Heterosexist behaviour : implies that everyone in a group is heterosexual, or that everyone lives in a
traditional family or is attracted to individuals of the opposite sex.
Sexual exploitation in Coach-Athlete Relationships
Quid pro qua harassment : there is a bargaining of privileges for sexual favors.
Hostile environment harassment : a negative and debilitating atmosphere is created by the
authority figure that is both hostile and unwelcoming.
, Sport motivation & sport performance
0HK00 ~ Summary
Chapter 2: Personality as a core characteristic of the individual
In the 1960’s and 70’s, personality assessment of athletes was very popular.
Personality defined
All the consistent ways in which the behaviour of one person differs from the behaviour of others,
especially in social situations.
Theories of personality
Psychodynamic theory (Freud ~ 1933)
Id : the unconscious instinctual core of personality
Ego : the conscious, logical, reality-oriented aspect of the personality
Superego : the conscience of the individual
The dynamic conflicts between the impulse to seek release and the inhibition against these impulses
lead to the individuals personality.
Social learning theory
Behaviour is a function of social learning and the strength of the situation. The origin of this theory
can be traced back to Hull’s theory of learning and Skinner’s behaviorism.
Humanistic theory (Rogers and Maslow)
Self-actualization : The innate drive or tendency to enhance yourself , to realize capabilities, and to
become a better and more self-fulfilled person. An ongoing process of seeking congruence between
one’s experiences and one’s self-concept.
Trait theory
Personality can be described in terms of traits possessed by individuals. Traits are considered
synonymous with dispositions to act in a certain way.
Jung’s theory
An individual’s personality is based on 2 personality attitudes (introversion & extraversion)
and fours functions or mental processes (thinking, feeling, sensing and intuition). This gives 8
different personality types which can be either primary or inferior, so actually 16 personality
types.
Individuals can shape their own personality as they interact with the environment and other
people.
Measurement of personality
Rating scales
Involve the use of judges to observe an individual in some situation(s).
Unstructured projective procedures
Are commonly used to determine information about underlying motives.
The Rorschach Test : “inkblot”, 1921
The Thematic Apperception Test (Murray, 1943) : uses pictures depicting vague situations
Structured questionnaires
A paper-and-pencil test in which the subject answers specific true/false or Likert scale-type
statements.
, Sport motivation & sport performance
0HK00 ~ Summary
Structured questionnaires designed for Athletes
No scientific study has shown a strong statistical relationship between personality variables and
athletic ability.
Athletic Motivation Inventory : measures a number of personality traits related to high
athletic achievement.
Winning Profile Athletic Instrument : measures conscientiousness and mental toughness
Emotional intelligence
May be conceptualized as either a personality trait of as a mental ability to be learned. Emotional
intelligence is associated with the ability to regulate emotions and with increased positive mood and
self-esteem.
The Emotional Intelligence Scale consists of 4 subscales:
o Perception of emotions
o Managing emotions in the self
o Social skills/managing emotions in others
o Utilizing emotions
The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test is composed of 4 skills/branches, this
implies that one can learn to be emotionally intelligent.
o Ability to perceive and express emotions
o Ability to assimilate emotion in thought
o Ability to understand and analyze emotions
o Ability to regulate emotions
Resilience (the force within an individual that drives that person to confront and overcome
adversity) consists of 3 levels/waves:
o Identification of qualities possessed by resilient individuals
o Description of the disruptive process by which resilient qualities are integrated or
learned by individuals.
o The process by which individual athletes discover the innate and learned forces
within themselves that allow them to possess personal resilience.
Personality and Sport Performance
Literature shows a consistent relationship between personality and sport performance when
response distortion is removed and when data is analyzed using a multivariate approach (multiple
measures of personality are analyzed simultaneously).
Athletes vs. Non-athletes
Athletes seem to be more independent, more objective and less anxious than non-athletes. Athletes
are also often more intelligent and more extraverted than non-athletes.
Effects of athletic participation upon personality
Gravitational Hypothesis : Individuals who possess stable, extraverted personalities tend to
gravitate towards the athletic experience (athletic Darwinism).
Sport participation can enhance personal development.
Personality Sport Type
Personality profile differences exist between players of team and individual sports, and between
players of direct and parallel sports. Team sport athletes were observed to be more anxious,
dependent, extraverted, and alert-objective, but less sensitive-imaginative, than individual sport
athletes. Direct sport athletes (basketball, soccer, football, etc.) were observed to be more
independent and to have less ego strength than parallel sport athletes (volleyball, baseball, etc.).
, Sport motivation & sport performance
0HK00 ~ Summary
Personality profiles of athletes differing in skill level
It is not possible to distinguish successful from unsuccessful athletes using personality tests, unless
when comparing elite athletes to athletes of lesser ability. The higher the level of the athlete, the
more homogeneity exists between different athletes at that same level.
The interactional model
According to the interactional model, personality interacts with situation to predict performance.
Behaviour = personality + situation + personality*situation + error, where error represents all
unmeasured factors that may contribute to athletic behaviour.
Personality paradox : he inconsistency between behaviour and personality
Cognitive affective processing system (CAPS) : a way to explain the personality paradox. An
individual’s personality interacts with the environment (situation) to determine a behavioral
response (performance). CAPS consists of 5 elements :
o Stimuli are encoded
o Expectations & beliefs confer meaning to events
o Affects & emotions influence behaviour
o Personal goods & values influence behaviour
o Competencies & self-regulation skills interact with the other four elements to
determine behaviour
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