Well-written and structured essay on topics: Pro-social Behaviour and Dual process theory of decision making, course Psychology, module Social Psychology. Exam mark 2:1 (A). The essay includes citations and example studies and experiments to support the argument.
5 Independent vs Interdependent self-concept
6 Leadership styles
2 PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
(from the lecture)
Biological predisposition to help each other tied in with survival, either of the species or our own
genes.
Evidence from animal studies of altruistic behaviour (Stevens, 2005)
Biological/evolutionary approach:
❖ Species survival (Wilson, 1975) – survival is easier in groups, many animal examples
❖ Reciprocal helping (Trivers, 1971) – co-operative behaviour is better than defecting
behaviour, meaning that less conflict is better. Animals can then share helping behaviour
‘you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours’
❖ Gene continuation hypothesis: Sherman (1985) squirrels are more likely to warn genetically
related kin when threatened by predators. Burstein (1994) people are genetically more likely
to help closer kin than distant kin particularly in life-or-death situations (also young over old,
poor over rich etc)
Problems with Biological/evolutionary approach: example Titanic, ‘women and children first’
Social learning approach (Modelling)
❖ Bandura (1972) – observing pro-social behaviour increases helping. Instructions to be helpful
works with kids. Possibility of modelling if helping behaviour leads to positive outcomes such
as reward e.g. praising, bubblegum etc. (egoistic). Children are more likely to be influenced
by adult’s deeds rather than just words (Moore, 1984)
Social influence as explanation for pro-social behaviour (Darley, 1970) – helping/not helping is based
on series of decisions -> noticing the event -> interpreting the event -> assuming responsibility
(normative social influence the need to belong) -> decide what to do. As the number of bystanders
, increases,any given bystander is less likely to notice the incident, to interpret the incident as a
problem, to assume responsibility for taking actions.
Normative social influence – social norms define the ways help is given and if its given at all. Refers
to what is considered appropriate within a given group (attitudes, beliefs, behaviours). People are
rewarded for behaviour in keeping with social norms and punished when not.
Normative belief in bystander behaviour:
❖ Norms of Reciprocity – help with the expectation of return. We are more likely to help others
if they have helped us. People also may feel uncomfortable when they receive help but can
give nothing in return (Driver, 1968)
❖ Norms of Social Reciprocity – norm of helping people who are in need of our help and are
dependant on us. (sometimes ‘Selective help’ has the person brought about their own
undoing?)
Just-world hypothesis: norms of social justice, general belief that the world is a just place ‘ppl get
what they deserve and deserve what they get’
Introduction: Pro-social behaviour refers to any act that benefits others, such as helping,
cooperating, sharing, or comforting. This essay provides an overview of pro-social behaviour,
including its definition, origins, bystander behaviour, and factors predicting pro-sociality.
Definition of Pro-social Behaviour: Pro-social behaviour can be defined as any voluntary act intended
to benefit others. This definition includes a wide range of behaviours, from small acts of kindness to
larger acts of charity or activism. Pro-social behaviour is often contrasted with anti-social behaviour,
which refers to actions that harm others.
Egoistic Helping (Batson, 1983) – helping behaviour in which the goal of the helper is to increase
their positive feeling or to receive some benefit. Those individuals are less willing to make personal
changes.
Altruistic helping – helping behaviour with the ultimate goal the improvement of someone else’s
welfare. Those individuals are more willing to make personal sacrifices.
Origins of Pro-social Behaviour: The origins of pro-social behaviour have been studied from various
perspectives, including biological/evolutionary, social learning, and interactive approaches. The
biological/evolutionary approach suggests that pro-social behaviour is rooted in genetic and
physiological factors, such as empathy, altruism, and kin selection. The social learning approach
emphasizes the role of environmental factors, such as parenting, modelling, and reinforcement, in
shaping pro-social behaviour. The interactive approach suggests that pro-social behaviour is
influenced by a combination of individual and situational factors, such as empathy, norms, and social
identity.
Conclusion: In conclusion, pro-social behaviour refers to any voluntary act intended to benefit
others. The origins of pro-social behaviour can be explained by various approaches, including
biological/evolutionary, social learning, and interactive approaches. Bystander behaviour is a
phenomenon in which individuals fail to intervene in emergency situations, and is influenced by
theories such as diffusion of responsibility, social influence, and pluralistic ignorance. Pro-social
behaviour is predicted by perceiver variables, such as personality traits and mood, as well as
recipient variables, such as perceived need and similarity. Overall, a better understanding of pro-
social behaviour can help promote kindness, cooperation, and social harmony.
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