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Contemporary History - Utrecht University 2023/24
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Early Modern History - Utrecht University 2022/23
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Contemporary HistoryREFORMS, REVOLUTIONS, STATE BUILDING AND EUROPEAN SECURITY
1800-1914
Chapter 24 – Ideologies of Change in Europe, 1815-1914
Chapter 27 – The Americas in the Age of Liberalism, 1810-1910 (pp. 788-795, 799-814)
After having defeated Napoleonic France, the conservative monarchies of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and
Russia, at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), established a collective security system that helped produce
fifty years without major interstate warfare in Europe. On the domestic front, they tried to restore order and
limit the spread of social, economic and democratic reform that found their origin in the industrial revolution
and the Atlantic Revolutions in the late 18th century.
But the rise of new political ideologies like socialism, liberalism and nationalism turned out to be difficult to
suppress and in 1848 finally culminated in liberal and nationalist revolutions in several European countries.
These were crushed by resurgent restorative forces who curbed popular discontent by using nationalism as a
unifying political instrument and by improving urban life, introducing social welfare and allowing restricted
political participation.
Nationalism also powered the rise of new nation states like Italy and Germany. In America the nation states
that had emerged since the end of the 18th century continued to be instable. Differently than in Europe most
of them were liberal based. But that did not imply that everyone had equal rights or opportunities. Especially
indigenous peoples continued to suffer at the hand of the descendants of their former colonial masters.
Not only new ideologies but also new inventions as the result of scientific and technological progress
characterized the 19th century. Many of these inventions – like the discovery of germs as the cause of many
diseases or the invention of the electrical telegraph – improved peoples’ daily lives. Other new ideas and
inventions like social Darwinism, based on Darwin’s evolution theory, and the development of arms and the
arms industry (resulting in new, more destructive and lethal weaponry), helped to set the stage for a future of
extreme violence and bloodshed.
1. Describe how strong leaders and nation building transformed Italy, Germany and Russia
• Italy: in the 19th century, Italy was a collection of city-states and small principalities, with no
unified identity or centralized government. Strong leaders and nation building played a
significant role in transforming Italy into a modern, unified nation-state.
One of the most important leaders in this process was Giuseppe Garibaldi, a military leader
and nationalist who fought for Italian unification. Garibaldi played a key role in the Wars of
, Independence against foreign powers such as Austria, and he also helped to bring together
disparate Italian factions under a single cause.
Another important figure was Camillo di Cavour, a statesman who served as the Prime
Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia. Cavour was instrumental in securing alliances with
other European powers, which helped to isolate Austria and weaken its hold on Italy. He also
implemented policies that promoted economic growth and modernization.
Together, Garibaldi and Cavour helped to unify Italy and establish a centralized government
under the leadership of King Victor Emmanuel II. This process was completed in 1871 with
the capture of Rome, which became the capital of the newly unified Italy.
The transformation of Italy in the 19th century was not just a political process but also a
cultural one. Italian leaders and intellectuals worked to promote a sense of Italian identity and
pride, which helped to create a unified national consciousness. This process was aided by the
growth of mass media, which helped to spread the message of Italian unity and foster a
shared sense of culture.
• Germany: in the 19th century, Germany was a collection of fragmented states and
principalities, lacking a unified government and identity. Strong leaders and nation building
played a crucial role in transforming Germany into a modern, unified nation-state.
One of the most important figures in this process was Otto von Bismarck, a statesman and
diplomat who served as the Chancellor of the Kingdom of Prussia. Bismarck was a skilled
politician who worked to strengthen the power of Prussia and forge alliances with other
German states. He also oversaw a series of wars that helped to unite Germany under Prussian
leadership.
Bismarck's most significant achievement was the unification of Germany in 1871, which was
accomplished through a combination of diplomacy and military conquest. The resulting
German Empire was a powerful nation-state that would go on to become a dominant force in
Europe.
In addition to Bismarck, other leaders played important roles in the nation building process.
For example, Kaiser Wilhelm I served as the first emperor of the German Empire and helped
to establish a strong centralized government. Under his leadership, Germany experienced
rapid economic growth and industrialization, which helped to fuel its rise as a major
European power.
Cultural and intellectual developments also played a role in the nation building process.
German philosophers, writers, and artists helped to promote a sense of German identity and
pride, which was further strengthened by the growth of mass media and popular culture.
• Russia: in the 19th century, Russia was a vast empire with a diverse population and a complex
social and political structure. Strong leaders and nation building played a crucial role in
transforming Russia into a modern, unified nation-state.
, One of the most important figures in this process was Peter the Great, who ruled Russia from
1682 to 1725. Peter was a visionary leader who worked to modernize Russia and bring it into
the European mainstream. He introduced Western ideas, customs, and technologies, and
oversaw a period of rapid modernization and industrialization.
Another important leader was Catherine the Great, who ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796.
Catherine was a patron of the arts and sciences, and oversaw significant cultural and
intellectual developments in Russia. She also expanded Russia's territory through a series of
military campaigns and diplomatic alliances.
In the 19th century, Tsar Alexander II initiated a series of reforms aimed at modernizing and
liberalizing Russia. He abolished serfdom, reformed the legal system, and established a
system of local government. These reforms helped to create a more unified and centralized
government, and laid the groundwork for future modernization efforts.
Despite these efforts, however, Russia remained an autocratic state, with a powerful
centralized government and limited political freedoms. It was not until the Russian
Revolution of 1917 that the country would undergo significant political and social
transformation.
2. While in 19th century Europe the new ideologies of liberalism and socialism were repressed by
reactionary governments, liberalism powered state building in the Americas. The United States,
Canada and the Latin American countries developed along different lines, however. Describe how
and why this is the case?
In the 19th century, Europe and the Americas experienced significant social, economic, and political
changes. While the new ideologies of liberalism and socialism were repressed in Europe by
reactionary governments, these ideologies powered state building in the Americas. However, the
United States, Canada, and the Latin American countries developed along different lines due to a
variety of factors.
The United States and Canada developed as liberal democracies, with strong centralized
governments and market economies (an economic system in which production and prices are
determined by unrestricted competition between privately owned businesses). Both countries were
able to achieve this due to their relatively homogeneous populations, abundant natural resources, and
favorable geographical conditions. In the United States, the expansion westward and the
establishment of a national system of transportation and communication helped to create a sense of
national identity and promote economic growth. Canada, on the other hand, developed as a
confederation of provinces with a strong central government and a commitment to multiculturalism.
In contrast, the Latin American countries faced greater challenges in their state building efforts.
These countries had more diverse populations, with significant indigenous and African-descended
populations, as well as a history of colonialism and exploitation. Additionally, many of these
, countries were located in regions prone to political instability, with weak institutional frameworks
and a history of dictatorships and coups.
Despite these challenges, many Latin American countries were able to achieve some level of state
building through a combination of military force, populism, and democratic reform. For example,
Mexico achieved independence from Spain in the early 19th century and went through a period of
political instability before stabilizing under the rule of Porfirio Diaz. In Brazil, the monarchy was
abolished in 1889, and the country became a republic with a democratic constitution.
LECTURE 1 – EUROPEAN COLLECTIVE SECURITY AND REVOLUTION
In this lecture Ido de Haan will explain how the Great Powers aimed to create a new system of international
relations, as well as hoped to tame the forces of popular power and economic dynamics unleashed by the
French Revolution in Europe and beyond. However, the attempt to restore order, if not that of the Ancien
Régime, at least some modicum of stability, created new forms of political action and social disruption,
which failed to stem the revolutionary waves. Was the transformative impact of the revolution of 1848
comparable to that of the Atlantic revolutions between the 1770s and the end of the Napoleonic Empire?
After all the democratic ideals that underpinned the revolutionary call for liberty soon were adopted in very
different ways by the socialist and authoritarian opponents of liberalism. While the latter was on the retreat
after the heyday of bourgeois liberalism of the 1850s, nationalism became a tool to mobilize support for
imperialist states, and socialism came to mobilize an increasing number of people in opposition to both the
liberal and the conservative state.
1848 as an echo of the French Revolution
Even though it is the “French” revolution, it spreads worldwide:
• Counter-revolution:
o Mobilization against the French Revolution (e. g. Valmy, September 20, 1792)
o A new map
o Reforms (e. g. Code Civil des Francais, 1804)
o Mobilization of the people (e. g. Volkerschlacht Leipzig, October 16-19, 1813)
• Global history:
o 1791-1804: rising in Haiti
Was France ready for a revolution?
Restoration, but no way back
Problems of Restoration regimes:
• International order: the Congress of Vienna (September 18, 1814-June 9, 1815)
o Alliance Russia, Austria, Prussia, United Kingdom
o Territorial re-ordering
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