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PR
HC1: Introductie PR
Artikel 1: Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation
by Grunig (2009).
Many PR-practitioners are using new media in the same way they used the old: dumping
messages rather than strategic means of interacting. Practitioners and scholars must
reinstitutionalise PR as a behavioural, strategic management paradigm rather than as a
symbolic, interpretive paradigm.
Article provides model of strategic PR and offers suggestions for the use of digital media in
each phase of this model.
Fads change quickly, but PR practitioners still work in the same traditional way. If social
media are used in full potential, they will make PR more global, strategic, 2-way and
interactive, socially responsible.
Global theory of public relations (Grunig et al.) attempted to answer the question if PR
theory and practice should be unique to each country/culture or practised the same way
everywhere.
Theory: global PR should fall in the middle between standardisation and individualisation.
- Abstract: principles that could be applied
- Local: some should be applied in different locations.
o This because there are cultural differences and the press agentry/publicity
model that’s practiced universal isn’t effective.
o So follow the general principles and apply with appropriate variations.
Generic principles:
1. Empowerment of PR: communications manager has access to senior managers.
2. Integrated communication function: all PR integrated in a single department.
3. Separate management function: it has to be integrated.
4. Strategic manager: at least one senior manager that directs PR programmes.
5. Involved in strategic management: development of programs to communicate with
strategic publics.
6. Two-way and symmetrical communication: PR uses research, listening and dialogue.
7. Diverse: PR increases diversity when environments’ diversity increases.
8. Ethical: PR departments practice ethically and promote ethical and SRC.
6 contextual conditions to take into account when generic principles are applied
multinationally:
1. Culture 4. Level of economic development
2. Political system 5. Extent and nature of activism
3. Economic system 6. Media system
Sometimes difficult to apply generic principles, with new media makes it possible to
overcome contextual conditions. So, does not change the generic principles, but new media
facilitates application of principles.
,Abandoning the illusion of control
The flow of information on the Internet is uncontrollable: assumed control is an illusion.
Traditional paradigm of public relations that views PR as a messaging, publicity,
informational and media relations function.
- Define PR as a marketing com. function that supports it through media publicity.
- Believe that they can control messages of publics.
- Describe recipients of messages as audiences rather than publics.
- Believe that organisations can define, create their publics and ‘target’ them.
- Believe that publics can be persuaded: change minds of publics.
Research: behavioural, strategic management paradigm of PR: describes PR as a participant
in organisational decision-making rather than conveyor of messages.
- Research-based
- Mechanism for organisational listening and learning
- Help all management functions, incl. marketing
- Build relationships with stakeholders through communication
Situational theory of publics: members of publics have always controlled the messages to
which they are exposed - not the organisations/media. Publics create themselves, motivated
by the problems they experience in their life situations.
- Many problems are caused by organisational behaviour (loss of job)
- Problems experienced by publics, they can seek help from organisations (AIDS)
- Passive/non publics: people who are not members of active publics.
o PR tries to create active publics by sending messages to non-publics little
effect.
Research: programmes of symmetrical communication are more successful than
asymmetrical communication in building relationships between organisations and publics.
Research: reputations, images, brands, other cognitive representations are what members
of publics think and say, not what organisations can create/manage.
Only way PR managers can ‘manage’ cognitive representation: participate in managing
behaviours of organisations, manage communication with publics to cultivate relationships
with them.
Author does not believe that the internet society challenges Excellence paradigm:
organisation and publics are in internet-mediated social networks: PR is still about
organisation’s relationships with publics.
- They cannot reach everyone.
- Internet has empowered publics: people are less constrained by traditional info,
everywhere info, can interact, whenever, where-ever, throughout world.
- Easier to form and establish relationships anywhere, mediated dialogue is possible
Thus, easier for organisations to apply theories.
Using new media in the old way
PR practitioners are still using new media in the old way: as an information dump.
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,Switch Web 1.0 Web 2.0 hasn’t been universal. Some confuse PR with marketing.
Philips (2009) constructed model of digital communication that fit 4 models of PR: press
agentry/publicity, public-information, two-way asymmetrical, two-way symmetrical.
Many of same ethical problems from traditional PR are in online PR.
- Flogs: fake blogs of organisations.
- Astroturfing: PR practitioners posting favourable messages on blogs without
disclosing actual identity.
2 paradigms: interpretive/symbolic paradigm and strategic management/ behavioural
paradigm.
Interpretive and strategic management paradigms
Hatch (1997): 3 perspectives on organisations:
1. Modernist: classic theories of management, objective reality.
2. Symbolic-interpretive: subjective reality.
3. Postmodernist: reject general theories, deconstruct theories; determine whose
interests are served by theories.
Strategic management paradigm: modernism and postmodernism.
Symbolic: PR strives to influence how public interpret organisation.
Interpretive paradigm: emphasive messages, publicity, media relations, media effects.
Ineffective: does not deliver effects it promises. Does not provide a normative model that
should be practised. SMP does;
Strategic management paradigm: focuses on participation of PR executives in strategic
decision-making so that they can help manage behaviour of organisations; bridging: build
relationships with stakeholders.
- 2-way communication, dialogue, includes traditional PR, research and listening.
Some think strategic management theory is modernist, others think it’s postmodern.
Author: PR departments are empowered as strategic management function rather than
interpretive function, more postmodern: PR gives a way to voice and empower publics in
organisational decision-making (postmodern perspective).
Also: PR is increasing organisation’s revenue, reducing costs, risk (semi-modernist
perspective).
Elements of modernism and postmodernism.
2 categories is always oversimplification, but helps understand discipline.
Reinstitutionalise PR as strategic management discipline. Without: new media will not
be used in full potential.
Digital media in the strategic management of PR
Excellent PR departments:
- Make overall strategic decisions in organisations
3
, - Identify stakeholders
- Develop strategic programmes to communite with them.
- Use formative research to identify potential issues, define objectives to
communicate, specify measurable objectives, use formal/informal methods to
evaluate whether objectives are accomplished.
Stakeholders: broad categories of people who might be affected by management decisions
or who might affect those decisions.
- Scan environment, make stakeholder categories: active/passive.
-
Publics cannot stop consequences: issues can become crises if they’re not handled well.
must be negotiated and discussed.
Communication programmes with potential publics to manage conflict with them, before
decisions are made.
- Formative research
- Achievable/measurable objectives
- Implement programme
- Evaluation
Management decisions has no consequences on organisational reputation for audiences (not
publics): they have little importance to an organisation.
Figure 2: theoretical overview of how PR executives should participate in strategic
decision making processes of organisations.
More specific and applied tools:
Digital tools for public relations and strategy
Communication programmes
More and more companies are using new media for employee communication programme
(emails, virtual meetings etc.).
- Media relations, customer relations, etc.
- Mostly still one-way and asymmetrical
- Sometimes two-way, in Twitter, about real-time problems.
Environmental scanning
Digital media are ideal for environmental scanning research, as Google alerts. Media
monitoring tools are valuable to evaluate media relations programmes. Debate: automated
machine coding/ human coding.
Segmenting stakeholders and publics
Stakeholder:
Broad group of people with similar stakes in the organisation (employees, customers,
community members) not every member of stakeholder group is member of same public.
Publics: activist, active, passive, non-publics.
- Segment stakeholders, understand differing relationships, communicate about their
problems.
- Segment by identifying impact of consequences.
4
, - Then segment by situational theory of publics:
o Problem recognition
o Constraint recognition
o Involvement recognition
- Ideology.
- Content analytic techniques can be used to identify and code concepts.
Anticipating and dealing with issues and crises
Analysis of online media can continue beyond segmenting stakeholders and publics and
categorise issues.
Measuring relationships and reputation
Use cyberspace as a database for measuring the type and quality of relationships developed
with publics using the concepts of trust, mutuality of control, satisfaction, commitment.
- Content analytic scheme for measuring relationships
- Survey for evaluation
- Reputation by Bromley’s (1993).
Evaluation of communication programmes
Analytical scheme to evaluate effects of digital media programmes.
Conclusion
For some practitioners PR has not changed: they think publics can be controlled, while they
create themselves and control their own messages.
- Normative prescriptive theory: PR has greater value when it’s
1. Strategic 4. Integrated but not sublimated
2. Managerial 5. Diverse
3. Symmetrical 6. Ethical
Minimise symbolic interpretive paradigm Institutionalise strategic management.
Digital media provide tools for this paradigm shift revolutionalise PR.
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,Hoorcollege 2 – Nieuwseffecten en inhoudsanalyse
Artikel 2: Nederland vijfstromenland: De rol van media en stemwijzers
bij de verkiezingen van 2006 door Kleinneijenhuis et al. (2007).
Paragraaf 1.2 Vraagstelling en theorie
Door welke media-invloeden laten kiezers hun stemvoorkeur bepalen?
Soorten uitspraken in het nieuws
Vier soorten beweringen hebben invloed op stemgedrag van kiezers.
1. Nieuws over standpunten ten aanzien van issues
Standpunt aan politieke actor met betrekking tot een kwestie (product,
beleidsuitkomst, politiek strijdpunt).
BV: “SP wil ook zoet voor armen.” actor = SP, issue = armen, standpunt = iets bij
krijgen.
2. Feitelijke ontwikkelingen rond issues
Hoe gaat het feitelijk met een issue die politici willen beinvloeden?
BV: “Economie draait op volle toeren.”
- Niet duidelijk wie, wat oorzaak is geen actor of causaal verband.
- Wordt over gesproken alsof het over een feit gaat (hoeft niet echt zo te zijn).
3. Steun en kritiek-nieuws
Als een actor een politieke actor steunt of aanvalt.
BV: “Verdonk eist excuses van Aboutaleb.”
4. Succes en falen (horse race-nieuws)
Hetzelfde als 3, maar er wordt in het midden gelaten wie de steun/kritiek uitspreekt.
- Feitelijk vastgesteld wie succes heeft/faalt.
BV: “Bos in het nauw” of “CDA loopt uit.”
Verwachte effecten van nieuws over standpunten van politieke partijen
Welke onderwerpen zijn bij standpuntbepaling van belang?
- Onderwerpen waar voor verkiezing niet over gesproken wordt: vergeet kiezer.
- Agendavormingstheorie: langdurige aandacht thema wordt interessant voor
kijkers.
o Priminghypothese: grotere aandacht issue weegt zwaarder mee bij
beoordeling van politici.
- Issue-ownership-model: van belang welke reputatie partijen hebben ten aanzien van
bepaald issue.
o Eigen issue/huisthema: groot deel kiezers ziet gunstige reputatie van partij
over dit issue.
Deze 3 gecombineerd: voorspelling: gunstig voor partij als veel nieuws komt over thema
t.a.w. partij positieve reputatie heeft.
- Publiek oneens met partij? Meer uitleg over standpunt nodig: kunnen alleen
charismatische leiders. Makkelijker: issues waar publiek aan kant partij staat.
Effecten van nieuws over feitelijke ontwikkelingen ten aanzien van issues
6
, Public choice: hypothese: inflatie en werkloosheid gaan ten koste van populariteit van
regeringspartijen. Feitelijk nieuws over niet-economische ontwikkelingen hebben
vergelijkbare effecten.
Effecten van nieuws over steun of kritiek voor politieke partijen
Een kiezer die tegenstander is van een partij die kritiek levert op partij waar die voorstander
van is, zal versterkt worden in voorkeur van partij die kritiek krijgt.
Fan: steun winst, kritiek verlies.
- Interactie met issueoverwegingen: kiezers gaan weg bij partij met kritiek, maar
worden zwevende kiezer om te zoeken naar een partij die het meest lijkt op die ze
verlaten hebben.
o Onsympathieke aanbeveling: politiek bevriende partijen komen onder vuur te
liggen in meerpartijenstelsel.
Effect van nieuws over het succes of het falen van politieke partijen
Brandwagonhypothese: twijfelende kiezers kiezen eerder kant van winnaar dan verliezer.
- Nieuws over succes en falen in verkiezingscampagne is belangrijkste voorspeller van
veranderingen in voorkeuren kiezers in 2003.
Underdogeffect: kleine minderheid kiest voor de verliezer.
Interactie met ontvangerskenmerken
Voedingsbodem: iemands feitelijke politieke kennis.
- Voorkennis laag effectiviteit van politieke boodschap laag.
- Voorkennis hoog wordt boodschap terzijde geschoven omdat die alles al weet.
- Halfdenkers meest beïnvloedbaar: genoeg voorkennis dat ze boodschap niet
vergeten, te weinig voorkennis om het te weerspreken.
- Ongeinformeerd publiek informatie verstrekken
- Geïnformeerd publiek vooroordelen overwinnen.
Slapereffecten: veranderingen in opinie als gevolg van oude gevoelens.
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