WGU D236 CORE EXAM Pathophysiology Q&A Rated A+

WGU D236 CORE EXAM Pathophysiology Q&A Rated A+ Describe how your body responds to an infection. ANS- T cells produce cytokines, which stimulate B cells. B cells produce antibodies. Identify role of DNA changes in congenital abnormalities. ANS- Mutations in genes or chromosomal abnormalities How does development disrupts congenital abnormalities? ANS- Alterations of DNA Describes factors that disrupt homeostasis and how disruptions affect wellbeing. ANS- (ex) Fluid and electrolyte shifts can cause n/v or dysrhythmias. Explain RAAS ANS- Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system 1. Reduce blood flow causes kidneys to release renin produce angiotensin I converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II vasoconstriction release aldosterone kidneys conserve sodium and water Result less water lost in urine and blood pressure maintained. DKA ANS- increased anion gap, decreased HCO3 How do kidneys compensate for alkalosis ANS- retain H and excrete HCO3 Untreated acidosis leads to an increase in which electrolyte? ANS- Potassium West Nile Virus ANS- Transmitted through the bite of an infected mosquito. Severe signs and symptoms; high fever, headache and stiff neck Lyme disease ANS- Tick-borne disease caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi. Erythema infectiosum ANS- a febrile upper respiratory illness in a child followed by the sudden appearance of red, flushed cheeks, "fifth disease" Obesity ad diabetes are risk factors for having a child with _____. ANS- Spina bifida Trousseau's sign ANS- arm/carpal spasm associated with hypocalcemia Cause and sign of spina bifida ANS- results from failure of neural tube to close. sign - fluid filled sac on lower back. hemophilia is more common in ANS- males Prenatal exposure to alcohol includes ANS- ND-PAE, decreased brain function, FAS Connective vs muscle tissue disorders ANS- Connective- RA, Scleroderma, Lupus Muscle - MS, Muscular dystrophy, Myasthenia Gravia Describe Lupus ANS- Inflammatory disorder characterized by joint pain and butterfly rash Describe Myasthenia Gravis ANS- It is an autoimmune disorder where antibodies attack own Ach receptors. This causes weakness of skeletal muscles over the course of the day, along with ptosis, double vision, and difficulty swallowing. dermatitis ANS- inflammation of the skin eczema ANS- noninfectious, inflammatory skin disease characterized by redness, blisters, scabs, and itching decubitus ulcer ANS- sore caused by lying down for long periods of time Fungal infections ANS- superficial, localized skin conditions or deep tissue infections caused by exposure to spores may or may not be transmitted benign neoplasm ANS- noncancerous growths, stationary, distinct borders malignant neoplasm ANS- uncontrolled new tissue growth, irregular borders, spreads Osteoporosis ANS- The loss of bone mass often due to age, causing the bones to become porous, brittle, and easily fractured. osteomalacia ANS- disease marked by softening of the bone caused by calcium and vitamin D deficiency myoglobin ANS- red pigment that stores oxygen in muscle cells Bursa ANS- fluid-filled sac that allows for easy movement of one part of a joint over another Rickets ANS- a vitamin D deficiency in children, resulting in soft bones Degenerative disk disease ANS- A condition in which an intervertebral disk loses its normal structural integrity as a result of wear and tear, acute or repeated injuries or aging Paget disease ANS- Chronic inflammation of bones, resulting in thickening and softening of bones, that can occur in any bone but most commonly affects the long bones of the legs, the lower spine, the pelvis, and the skull communiuted fracture ANS- splintered into many pieces Three types of skin cancer ANS- 1. Basal cell carcinoma 2. Squamous cell carcinoma 3. Melanoma basal cell carcinoma ANS- Most common and least severe type of skin cancer; often characterized by light or pearly nodules. Rarely metastasize, most common on face due to sun exposure squamous cell carcinoma ANS- Type of skin cancer more serious than basal cell carcinoma; often characterized by scaly red crusted papules or firm nodules. Melanoma ANS- The most serious form of skin cancer, caucasian males at highest risk, usually black or brown lesion consequences when integumentary system is disrupted ANS- impaired immunity types of burns ANS- Superficial (1st degree) - red/painful Partial-thickness (2nd degree) -wet/pink/painful Full-thickness (3rd degree) -white/swollen/no pain Viltigo ANS- localized loss of skin pigmentation characterized by milk-white patches ischemic CVA vs hemorrhagic CVA ANS- ischemic - clot vs hemorrhagic - blood subdural hematoma ANS- collection of blood under the dura mater Alzheimer's disease vs parkinson's disease ANS- Alz - affects language and memory Park - affects all executive functioning Huntington's disease ANS- Genetic disorder that causes progressive deterioration of brain cells. caused by a dominant allele. symptoms do not appear until about the age of 30. involves involuntary muscle movement Sclerosis ANS- abnormal condition of hardening disorders that cause vision loss ANS- glaucoma - loss of pheripheral vision, cataracts - cloudy vision, retinal detachment - floaters, flashes, curtain vision kyphosis ANS- excessive outward curvature of the spine, causing hunching of the back. disorders that cause hearing loss ANS- Meniere's disease - changes in fluid in tube of inner ear (imbalance and vertigo), Otitis media - middle ear infection Predisposing factors of ischemic stroke ANS- a fib, carotid stenosis, cerebral arteriosclerosis rheumatoid arthritis ANS- A chronic systemic disease characterized by inflammation of the joints, stiffness, pain, and swelling that results in crippling deformities. Causes elevated WBC counts. cerebral contusion ANS- the bruising of brain tissue as the result of a head injury that causes the brain to bounce against the rigid bone of the skull; symptoms: ringing in ears, severe headache, n/v. TIA vs CVA ANS- TIA = -result when a cerebral artery is temp blocked and decreases blood flow to brain Stroke= artery completely blocked leading to death of brain and permanent loss of certain functions multiple sclerosis ANS- A chronic, irreversible disease of the central nervous system marked by damage to the myelin sheath. Plaques occur in the brain and spinal cord causing tremor, weakness, incoordination, paresthesia, and disturbances in vision and speech aneurysm ANS- ballooning of a weakened portion of an arterial wall thrombus vs embolus ANS- Thrombus = clot in arteries embolus = dislodged traveling clot in arteries, blocks blood flow Artherosclerosis ANS- Hardening and narrowing of the arteries due to buildup of cholesterol plaques helial injury cell formation streak formation angina pectoris ANS- chest pain, which may radiate to the left arm and jaw, that occurs when there is an insufficient supply of blood to the heart muscle myocardial infarction ANS- the occlusion of one or more coronary arteries caused by plaque buildup (heart attack) endocaritis ANS- inflammation of the inner lining of the heart peridcarditis ANS- inflammation of the pericardium (sack surrounding heart) benign vs malignant hypertension ANS- benign - "essential hypertension", chronic vascular damage due to sodium retention. malignant - acute vascular damage due to renin release communicable disease ANS- A disease that can be spread from one person or species to another. infectious disease ANS- A disease that is caused by a pathogen and that can be spread from one individual to another. myocardial infarction causes damage to ANS- arteries of : brain, retina, heart, kidneys. what is expected in right sided heart falure ANS- JVD what characterizes hypertensive crisis ANS- systolic BP 180 types of anemia ANS- - Aplastic (decreased or missing RBC production) - Iron Deficiency - Folic Acid Deficiency - Vitamin B12 Deficiency/Pernicious - Hemolytic (breakdown of RBCs faster than produced) - Sickle Cell (RBCs die too early, shortage of RBCs) Where does cancer originate from in leukemia? ANS- bone marrow CD4 cells ANS- Helper T cells that mature in thymus that active B cells to create immunity Hodgkin's lymphoma ANS- distinguished from other lymphomas by the presence of large, cancerous lymphocytes known as Reed-Sternberg cells Lymphocytosis ANS- abnormal increase in lymphocytes, asymptomatic Stable angina ANS- predictable and consistent pain that occurs on exertion and is relieved by rest and/or nitroglycerin Upper respiratory tract infection ANS- common cold, laryngitis, croup, pharyngitis, rhinitis, sinusitis, and tonsillitis lower respiratory tract infection ANS- pneumonia, bronchitis, tuberculosis conditions that lead to COPD ANS- smoking, asthma, dust, chemicals, genetics pnemonia ANS- an inflammation in the lung caused by infection from bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, or resulting from aspiration of chemicals. Hear crackles and rhonchi. Asthma ANS- treatment resistant bronchospasm, same category of COPD pneumothorax ANS- air in the pleural cavity caused by a puncture of the lung or chest wall cor pulmonale ANS- right-sided heart failure arising from chronic lung disease Coal Worker's Pneumoconiosis ANS- Carbon dust, seen in coal miners. Massive exposure leads to diffuse fibrosis('black lung') common characteristics of chronic digestive system disorders ANS- (Celiac, Chron's, Colitis...) Abdominal pain, weight loss, changes in urination/bowel movements, bleeding, diarrhea, n/v.... common characteristics of acute digestive system disorders ANS- (GERD, IBS, Hiatal hernia...) Abd pain, bleeding, bloating, diarrhea, heartburn, n/v pyelonephritis ANS- Inflammation of the renal pelvis and kidney; caused by bacterial infection (commonly E. Coli) glomerulonephritis ANS- inflammation of the glomeruli in the kidneys from injury or illness renal calculi (kidney stones) ANS- -Minerals in urine crystallize -Most can pass, but some become too big and obstruct a ureter renal cell carcinoma ANS- cancerous tumor that arises from kidney tubule cells; flank pain, hematuria, abd lump end-stage renal disease (ESRD) ANS- any type of kidney disease in which there is little or no remaining kidney function, requiring the patient to undergo dialysis or kidney transplant for survival. Symptoms: n/v, fatigue, change in urination, chest pain, HTN, AMS Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy (CRRT) ANS- method used to replace normal kidney function by circulating the patient's blood through a hemofilter and returning it to the patient. benefit over other dialysis - happens 24 hrs/ day slower shift in electrolytes ulcerative colitis ANS- chronic inflammation of the colon with presence of ulcers - autoimmune and inflammatory bowel diseases Diverticulitis ANS- inflammation of a diverticulum, especially in the colon, causing pain and disturbance of bowel function. Relieved by bowel movement, advise against enema and colonoscopy. organ targeted by virus that causes hep c ANS- liver Hepatisis A,B,C,D,E spreads ANS- A and E - fecal/oral BCD - blood, bodily fluids Cholecystitis ANS- inflammation of the gallbladder; usually associated with gallstones (RUQ pain radiates to back) GERD cause ANS- failure of the lower esophageal sphincter to close pancreatitis ANS- inflammation of the pancreas, can be cause by gallstone blocks common bile duct Chron's disease ANS- A chronic inflammatory bowel disease that affects the lining of the digestive tract, chronic symptoms: diarrhea, sores, fistula, weight loss Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) ANS- rapid loss of renal function due to damage to the kidneys; formerly called acute renal failure Colon cancer symptoms/signs? ANS- 1. Right sided - iron deficiency anemia 2. Left sided - obstruction 3. "Apple core" lesion on barium enema 4. Pencil thin stools 5. Hematochezia (bright red blood) 6. Colicky pain 6. Partial obstruction risk factors for renal cancer ANS- smoking, overweight, HTN risk factors for bladder cancer ANS- Smoking**, occupational exposure to dyes (benzenes, aromatic amines), Hx of gross hematuria, 40 y/o, hx of urologic disorder, Hx of irritative voiding symptoms, Hx of UTI, analgesic abuse, history of pelvic irradiation GFR (glomerular filtration rate) ANS- used to stage chronic renal disease common characteristics of endocrine system disorders ANS- dark skin spots, low BP, fatigue, n/v/d common treatments for prostate and testicular cancers ANS- orchiectomy or radiation pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) ANS- inflammation and infection of organs in the pelvic region; symptoms: pain in pelvis, abd, vagina, during sex, during urination, cramps, vaginal dischrge/odor Thyroid cancer ANS- Papillary carcinoma, lump in neck - dysphagia, voice changes Graves disease ANS- an autoimmune disorder that is caused by hyperthyroidism and is characterized by goiter and/or exophthalmos. Other symptoms/signs: tachycardia, thick patch of skin on legs, protruding eyes, weight-loss, insomnia Hypothyroidism ANS- A disorder caused by a thyroid gland that is slower and less productive than normal -T3 and T4 are low, but TSH high. chronic fatigue, brittle nails, constipation Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) ANS- a complication of diabetes that is caused by having too little insulin; also called hyperglycemia. can cause cerebral edema; lipolysis with ketone formation is a hallmark. causes of diabetes ANS- type 1: beta cells in pancreas are destroyed (autoimmune) type 2: overweight, body becomes insulin resistant gestational: hormones during pregnancy cause glucose levels to rise diabetes insipidus (DI) ANS- antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is not secreted, or there is a resistance of the kidney to ADH acromegaly ANS- abnormal enlargement of the extremities caused by hypersecretion of growth hormone by pituitary gland Cushing's disease ANS- (Remember: *UP, UP, UP, DOWN, UP*) - HYPERnatremia, HYPERtension, INCREASED blood volume, HYPOkalemia, HYPERglycemia Gonorrhea ANS- A sexually transmitted bacterial disease caused by a gonococcus bacterium that causes inflammation of the genital mucous membrane, PID, burning pain when urinating, and a discharge polycystic ovary syndrome ANS- a condition caused by a hormonal imbalance in which the ovaries are enlarged by the presence of many cysts formed by incompletely developed follicles; elevated levels of androgens; s/s: infertility, irregular periods, hirsutism, insulin restistance which STIs can be passed via birth canal ANS- gonorrhea, chlamydia endometriosis ANS- a condition in which patches of endometrial tissue escape the uterus and become attached to other structures in the pelvic cavity Triple negative breast cancer ANS- patients lack estrogen and progesterone receptors, do not respond to hormone therapy (only chemo) Antiandrogen therapy ANS- (Spironolactone or flutamide) causes lack of testosterone erectyle dysfunction or decreased bone density or hotflashes Cullen's sign ANS- ecchymosis in umbilical area, seen with pancreatitis anemia can cause ANS- pelvic pain, menorrhagia, constipation, uterine leiomyomas epididymitis ANS- inflammation of the epididymis that is frequently caused by the spread of infection from the urethra or the bladder or by chlamadia Chlamydia ANS- A bacterial infection that affects the reproductive organs of both males and females; male symptoms include penile discharge, uncomfortable walking Cryotherapy ANS- using cold for therapeutic purposes, used for prostate therapy Explain Starling's Law of Capillary Forces and how it causes edema. ANS- Starling's hypothesis states that the fluid movement due to filtration across the wall of a capillary is dependent on the balance between the hydrostatic pressure gradient and the pressure gradient across the capillary. This causes edema by the retention of water in the tissues instead of vascular system. Why is it important to maintain a homeostatic balance of glucose in the blood? ANS- glucose is used for energy and is not synthesized by the brain, so it is needed to maintain brain/motor functions Compare and contrast Type I and Type II Diabetes ANS- Type 1- The body's immune system destroys the cells in the pancreas that produces insulin (typically in kids/ teens) Type 2- "insulin resistance" - when cells fail to respond normally to the hormone insulin. Differentiate between Innate Immunity and Adaptive Immunity ANS- Innate immunity is the body's first line of defense against pathogens. It is general and non-specific, which means it does not differentiate between types of pathogens. Adaptive immunity is a type of immunity that is built up as we are exposed to diseases or get vaccinated. Describe how and why our injury response results in the signs of redness, swelling, heat, and pain? Be sure to use chemokines, histamine, and vasodilation in your response. ANS- Our body first releases cytokines which produce inflammatory cells or chemokines directly to the affected area to stimulate healing. Vasodilation occurs simultaneously to facilitate quicker and easier movement of inflammatory cells to the area. Describe how to determine the probability of clinical outcomes given information about the parents (eg two heterozygous carriers of sickle cell disease) ANS- in two heterozygous (two different gene sets) carriers (one dominant and one recessive gene) creates a 50% chance outcome of offspring having sickle cell disease Describe how calcitonin, parathyroid hormone, and calcitriol (Vitamin D) work together to maintain normal blood calcium levels. ANS- calcitonin and PTH work oppositely to balance calcium. the three work together to shift calcium into bones, organs and blood Describe the function of osteocytes within lacunae of bone ANS- Osteocytes maintain bone mass through anabolic activities; they promote bone repair through recruitment of osteoclast mediated turnover Describe bone remodeling. Which cells are involved in this process and what is their function? ANS- osteoclasts destroy old, degenerative cells to make room for new ones. osteoblasts build new bone cells. osteocytes facilitate this process and help retain calcium for bone strength and health. Describe the process of articular degeneration. Which cells are involved in this process and what is their function? ANS- articular degeneration is also known as osteoarthritis. macrophages are the primary cell involved, and they induce inflammation. How does denosumab treat osteoporosis? ANS- Denosumab is an antibody that slows down the natural rate your bones are broken down. It works by blocking a protein and suppressing the cells that break down bone. How does compartment syndrome develop? Which part of our body tends to develop compartment syndrome? How do patients typically recognize they may need to seek medical assistance for rhabdomyolysis? What is the most sensitive laboratory test for rhabdomyolosis? ANS- Compartment syndrome occurs when blood flow is restricted to area for an extended period of time. It usually develops in extremities. Patients recognize rhabdo by new muscle pain and decreased urinary output, and is detected by creatine kinase in the blood. What is a pulmonary embolism? What is a fat embolism? When might a patient develop a pulmonary embolism? When might a patient develop a fat embolism? How are they treated? ANS- Pulmonary embolism is when a blood clot is lodge in a pulmonary artery, usually caused by a traveling clot getting lodged. A fat embolism is when a clot of fat cells disrupts blood flow, usually after a bone fracture. PEs are treated with anticoagulants to thin the blood, while there is no specific treatment for FEs. Describe Albinism. What portions of the body are negatively affected by Albinism? ANS- It is an alteration in a gene that has decreased pigment to skin, hair, and eyes. Describe how retinal detachment leads to vision loss. ANS- The areas where the retina detaches lose their blood supply and stop working, causing you to lose vision. Name two biomarkers that can be used to confirm a myocardial infarction occurred and what types of molecules are they? ANS- troponin, creatine kinase What is lymph ANS- fluid that flows in lymphatic system to return fluid from tissues into circulation What are lymph nodes? ANS- Filter interstitial fluid. Swollen glands mean you are fighting an infection What are Peyer's patches? ANS- the numerous areas of lymphoid tissue in the wall of the small intestine that are involved in the development of immunity to antigens present there. What is the difference between Hodgkin's Lymphoma and Non Hodgkin's Lymphoma? ANS- If the Reed-Sternberg cell is not present, the lymphoma is classified as non-Hodgkin's. Emphysema (COPD) ANS- Overdistention of alveoli resulting in the ability to remove CO2 is called COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) ANS- disease with enlarged lung spaces, usually from smoking can cause shortness of breath What are the three types of jaundice that may present as a result of liver dysfunction? Describe the cause of each. ANS- pre-hepatic: excessive breakdown of RBCs. hepatic: loss of ability of liver to regular billirubin. post-hepatic: due to blockage or obstruction Describe the function(s) of the following parts of a nephron: glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, juxtaglomerular apparatus, proximal tubule, Loop of Henle, distal tubule, and collecting duct. ANS- glomerulus filters blood. Bowman's capsule filters blood from glomerulus capillaries. juxtaglomerular apparatus helps maintain proper flow and blood pressure. proximal tubule reabsorbs filtrate. Loop of Henle reabsorbs salt and water from urine. distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct both reabsorb ions and water and promote homeostasis. endocarditis vs pericarditis ANS- endo- inflammation inside heart causing valves to not fully close - usually due to infection - treatment: abx, valve repair; peri- inflammation outside of heart causes heart to be compressed and not fully pump - from too much fluid / blood surrounding heart from trauma or heart attack - treatment: NSAIDs + steroids, pericardiocentesis. both have same signs/symptoms: low oxygen and chest pain Hypervalemia ANS- fluid volume excess s/s: muscle/chest pain, weakness, n/v, palpitations Hypernatremia ANS- high sodium: S (Skin flushed) A (agitation) L (low grade fever ) T (thirst)