Psychopathology notes for AQA psychology that will help you get an A/A*. The notes can be used to help you write model answers for 16 mark questions, they are thorough yet condensed and include sufficient outlines of sub-topics and evaluation :)
The behavioural approach to explaining: the two-process
model, including classical and operant conditioning
The two‐process model suggests that phobias are acquired through
classical conditioning: learning by association and are maintained through
operant conditioning: negative reinforcement.
According to the theory of classical conditioning, humans can learn to fear
an object or stimulus, such as a dog, by forming an association between
the object and something which triggers a fear response, for example being
bitten.
In this example, the dog, which was originally a neutral stimulus, becomes
associated with being bitten, which is an unconditioned stimulus. This
pairing leads to the dog becoming a conditioned stimulus, which when
encountered will elicit fear, a condition response.
This fear may then be passed onto other stimuli similar to the conditioned
stimuli via generalisation
According to operant conditioning, phobias are negatively reinforced where
a behaviour is strengthened, because an unpleasant consequence is
removed.
For example, if a person with a dog phobia sees one whilst out walking,
they might avoid it by crossing the road.
This reduces the person’s anxiety and so negatively reinforces their
behaviour, making the person more likely to con
Watson and Rayner (1920)
Used a child called little Albert to demonstrate how phobias could be
induced in a child. They did this by making a loud noise when presenting a
white rat to the child and were able to generalise this fear to other white
fluffy objects such as a rabbit.
This study acts as evidence for the Two-process model via proving how
acquisition and generalisation of phobias work
However, it was a highly unethical study as it caused little Albert emotional
harm which goes against ethical guidelines which psychologists must follow
, Menzies and Clarke (1993)
Found that only 2% of children with a fear of water could recall a traumatic
experience with water, suggesting that the behaviourist explanation cannot
account for all phobias.
Therefore, 2 process model is too simplified and can’t account for all
phobias
There is a claim that the behavioural approach may not provide a
complete explanation of phobias
For example, Bounton (2007) highlights the fact that evolutionary factors
could play a role in phobias, especially if the avoidance of a stimulus (e.g.
snakes) could have caused pain or even death to our ancestors.
Consequently, evolutionary psychologists suggest that some phobias are
not learned but are in fact innate, as they acted as a survival mechanism
for our ancestors.
This casts doubt on the two‐process model since it suggests that there is
more involved than learning and that some phobias (e.g. snakes) are not
learned, but are in fact innate.
Behaviourist theories of phobia formation and maintenance have led to
effective counter-conditioning treatments such as flooding and
systematic desensitisation
For example, McGrath et al. (1990) found that 75% of patients with
phobias were successfully treated using systematic desensitisation.
Provides support
The behavioural approach to e treating phobias: systematic
desensitisation, including relaxation and use of hierarchy;
flooding
Systematic desensitisation uses counterconditioning to help patients
‘unlearn’ their phobias, by eliciting another response: relaxation instead of
fear.
A patient works with their therapist to create a fear hierarchy, ranking the
phobic situation from least to most feared
The patient is also taught relaxation strategies, such as breathing
techniques, to help them remain calm when exposed to their fear.
Finally, the patient works through their fear hierarchy, starting at the
bottom, while trying to remain relaxed at each stage.
Systematic desensitisation works on the assumption that two emotional
states cannot exist at the same time, a theory known as reciprocal
inhibition, and eventually relaxation will replace the fear.
Flooding is a behavioural therapy which, rather than exposing a person to
their phobic stimulus gradually, exposes the individual is full exposed to the
maximum level of phobic stimulus.
With flooding, a person is unable to avoid (negatively reinforce) their
phobia and through continuous exposure, anxiety levels eventually
decrease.
Since the option of employing avoidant behaviour is removed, extinction
will soon happen because anxiety is time limited, and as a result, the fear
will subside
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