Cardiff University Psychology Course PS2011 (Year Two Developmental) information cards for exams
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Course
Developmental Psychology (PS2011)
Institution
Cardiff University (CF)
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These cards I would print one sided and cut out - using the title to prompt me to recall as much as possible on a topic.
Contingency learning
Greco et al., 1986
- Does revolve around where the infant is looking (Active measure)
- Measuring whether an infant recognises that their actions have consequences in the world.
- There is a string attached to a mobile above the infant’s head, when the infant kicks the
mobile moves
o Over time the infant learns that their movements cause these effects in the world. (she
can perceive the consequences of her action and that causes her to change her
behaviour)
Found this as young as 3 months of age
Used this to test memory for these kind of things
Understanding of themselves as causal agents.
Perceptual narrowing
Pascalis et al., 2002
Animal faces
- Infants under 9 months of age are able to distinguish between different monkey faces
- Only after they’re exposed more so to human than monkey faces that this ability disappears.
- Studies hsow that you can prolong the period where they can discriminate by giving them picture books of
monkeys etc.
- Its not just faces and language you also see this with different types of music
- You can tell when the structure of music from your
culture is violated – but not when it’s a music foreign to you.
- Babies can discriminate when they are young but their ability to discriminate gradually narrows.
Hannon & Trehub, 2005
,The role of motor learning on perception: The visual cliff
Gibson and Walk (1960)
- Infants are just trying to crawl
- Looking at the role of motor learning on perception (depth perception)
- Showed that human infants and infants of a number of different species will avoid crossing over an apparent drop off from
what they called a visual cliff.
- A glass table on one side there is a checkerboard pattern surface right under the glass.
- The other side of the table, the pattern surface is way down on the floor
- So it looks like a 3 foot drop off
o When human babies begin to crawl, most of them wil crawl over the edge
o But several week of crawling experience and they begin to refuse to crawl over the drop off
o The interpretation of this was that infants are avoiding the drop off because they’re afraid of heights.
- This research became the foundation for the belief that crawling innately teaches us to fear heights.
Karen Adolph
o The visual cliff was abetter test of an infants depth perception not their fear or heights.
Infants don’t look scared
After one trail humans figure out that they can walk on the glass and they will crawl over the drop off
o If there is no safety glass you can test the same baby over and over again on dozens of trials
You can determine for each infant when they think that a surface is safe, and when they think its risky
o Found that infants do not transfer what they learned about crawling down slopes to walking down them
4 learning curves: sit, crawling, cruising, walking
o Over the weeks of learning these different stages, Adolph suggests babies are learning to perceive the relations between
their bodies and the environment
o Ide is that infants are learning something specific to the modality of locomotion their using
Learning how their bodies relate to the world.
Interplay between locomotion & perception
One of the ways we know that locomotion is an important factor is through work with animals.
- You can control the experience of the animal in a much more controlled way – less ethical
- Used cats
- One cat gained experience walking experience walking around a carousel
- Another cat saw the same visual information, but they weren’t doing any walking themselves – passively moved around
Is it the active motor experience that creates the understanding about this visual cliff or is gaining the same perceptual info sufficient?
- Only the cat who gained the active walking experience learned about what was safe and what was not safe to cross.
- Motor experience is more important that visual experience when learning about how you body relates to the world.
,Role of reaching on social perception
- One way to give infants grasping experience before they would otherwise experience it is by using “sticky mittens”
- The infants wear Velcro mittens which stick to Velcro on toys
- Few minutes of experience creating object directed actions for the first time
- By manipulating their experience we can see what effect that has on their perception
How does giving infants this object directed experience alter their visual preferences?
- Infants saw a toy on a screen next to a face – wanted to know if gaining experience playing with toys would alter their visual
preference for looking.
- Active training group = looked longer at the face than the toy
- No training = no preference
- Infants 5 months of age (naturally produced reaching actions) = show preference for the face
o Conclude that gaining reaching actions draw infants attention of social stimuli.
Individual Differences: Attention Network Test
- Tests all 3 types of attentional systems in one task
- Alerting, orienting and executive with different kinds of trials
- On the right there is a timeline of a particular trial where a fixation cross appears and then the cue does or does not appear in a
different area, another fixation cross appears and the target appears and the pps had to respond again to that middle arrow in the
Flanker task.
- Testing for the different systems are based n this cue
- Alerting system test whether theres a cue present or not
- Orienting – test whether that cue is presented at the centre or at the tp or the bottom
- Executive – whether that central arrow is pointing the same way as the ones around it or not (congruent or incongruent).
- Look at how reaction times differ between these different cases.
- For alerting they compare trials in which theres no cue present before the target appears vs double cue present
- Orienting system look at the reaction time difference between central presentation of cue vs special orientation
- Conflict – look at difference between congruent vs incongruent trials.
If you have a fully operating system:
- Alerting system – faster on cue trails
- Orientation – faster on special cue trails than central
- Executive – faster on congruent
Across these they can get separate measures of each of these systems and look at IV in reaction times. both papers looked at performance
on this task at different ages and how that relates to behavior or temperament.
, Testing basic action understanding
- Basic paradigm
- Relied on looking times in infants
- In habituation trials infant watched a hand (gloved) reach for one of two objects on stage ad grab it – the hand
stays grabbing the object until the infant looks away
- Learning that the person is reaching for a ball
- After infants habituate their looking time decreases and then we change the placement of the toys
- We have two kinds of test trials
o “new goal” (the relation between the person and the object they’re reaching for is disrupted)
o “new path” (goal structure maintained – reaching for the same object)
- Look longer at the new goal trials because they recognize that the goal is important
Used to understand when children understand the concept of goals
“sticky mittens” intervention
- Babies interested n toys but not good at actually reaching for and grabbing them
- Give infants experience producing goal directed reaches
- Active:
o Velcro mittens
o Can now move around and pick it up
o Not about attention to faces and toys but about goal understanding
- Observational:
o Might be what theyre learning is just about what they see not the fact theyre producing the action
o Watch the experimenter move the object around for the same amount of time they would get to produce the
action for themselves if they had the gloves.
Does active motor experience and or this observational experience change infants understanding of goal directed reaches in this
habituated paradigm talked about before.
Effects of sticky mittens:
- We know that infants naturally by 5 or 6 months will look longer to new goal than new path trials
- What do 3 months do after these different experiences?
- Infants who gained that active experience showed an understanding of the goal of someone else’s action
- Observation experience infants did not show this understanding
- Indicated unique effect of active experience.
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