Summary of Developmental Psychology (7 problems - 2022/2023)
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Course
1.5 Developemental Psychology (FSWPK36)
Institution
Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam (EUR)
Hello! This is the summary of the needed information for the 7 problems of Block 5 - Changing Men. I used the best sources for each problem and explained the subjects in an understandable way. It includes checklists and comprehensive timelines
I hope this helps you with your exam :) If you have an...
Problem 1
Shaffer
Conception – the moment of fertilization when the sperm penetrates an ovum forming a zygote.
When the sperm penetrates the ovum, a biochemical reaction repels other sperms preventing other fertilization.
Then the sperm cell begins to disintegrate releasing its genetic material + the ovum also releases its genetic material,
and a new nucleus forms around the hereditary information provided by the sperm and the ovum – the zygote.
How is genetic material present in the body and how is it passed on?
In the nucleus → chromosomes → DNA → genes → alleles → sequences of base pairs
The zygote contains 46 chromosomes (in humans there are 46 chromosomes in the nucleus of each body
cell) – consisting of thousands of chemicals segments – genes – hereditary blueprints for development that
are transmitted unchanged from generation to generation.
Chromosomes come in pairs (with one exception) one member of each pair comes from the mother and the
other comes from the dad.
DNA molecules are made up of building blocks – nucleotides – held together by two long twisted parallel
strands. DNA in chromosomes carries the units of hereditary info through portions of a chromosomes’ DNA
molecule – genes- which are located at sites on the chromosome, where they code to produce various kinds
of proteins. It can duplicate itself.
Phenotype – can be affected by environment, all your genes (dominant and recessive)
Genotypes - can’t be affected by environment, physical expression of a gene
Diploid – all somatic cells, the ones that come in pairs
Haploid – the ones that are alone – gamete
Allele: each allele refers to specific expression of a gene (hair colour)
Growth of the Zygote Mitosis: The zygote can replicate itself through mitosis – when a cell duplicates its
chromosomes and then divides into 2 genetically identical daughter cells. By the time the child is born it consist of
billions of cells created through mitosis. It continues throughout life, generating new cells for growth and for
replacing old cells. With which division the cell contains a copy of 46 chromosomes from the conception.
Other the body cells, people have germ cells that have a special function
– producing gametes (sperm in males and ovum in females)
Production of gametes through meiosis – in the tetes and ovaries
the fe/male germ cells produce sperm and ova through meiosis.
First the germ cell duplicates its 46 chromosomes. Then they do
crossing-over – adjacent duplicated chromosomes cross and
break at one or more points exchanging segments of genetic
material – this creates a new and unique hereditary combination.
Next, pairs of duplicated chromosomes segregate into 2 cells,
each containing 46 chromosomes. Finally, the new cells divide so
the gametes have 23 unpaired chromosomes – at conception a
sperm with 23 chromosomes pairs with an ovum with 23 chromosomes. – why brother and siters are not the
same combinations of chromosomes. – independent assortment – the principle that each pair of
chromosomes segregates independently of all other chromosomes pairs during meiosis.
Fertilization – combination of random gametes. Each gamete has an unique combination of half the DNA.
Twinszies
A zygote can split into sperate but identical cells, thus twins – monozygotic twins (identical)
a mother can also release two ova at the same time, and each be fertilized by a different sperm – dizygotic
twins (fraternal)
Gender: 22 out of 23 of the chromosomes are autosomes and are similar in males and females. Sex is determined by
the 23rd pair – the sex chromosome. Fathers determine the sex of the child. when the sex chromosome of a male,
which is XY, separates into gametes during meiosis, half the sperm produce will have the X chromosome and half will
have the Y chromosome. The ova only have XX chromosomes. So, the sex depends on the chromosome in the sperm.
, - in males it’s the X chromosome followed by the Y chromosome
- in females its 2 X chromosomes
Function of Genes – technically, they call to produce amino acids which form enzymes and other protein necessary
for the formation and function of new cells.
they guide cell differentiation, making some cells part of the brain and CNS and other parts of the body, etc.
responsible for regulating the pace and timing of development – they are turned off or turned on by other
regulatory genes at different points in life.
genes influence and are influenced by the biochemical environment surrounding them during development
- So environmental influences combine with genetic influences to determine how a genotype is translated
into a particular phenotype—the way one looks, feels, thinks, and behaves.
o For ex, the environment that surrounds the cell may affect the genes expression and the external
environments also affects how the gene will express the genetic material (like if you have the gene
for being tall but you don’t eat.)
Expression of genes – four main patters:
Single-gene inheritance patterns – human characteristics determined by the actions of a single gene:
1. Simple dominant-recessive inheritance – many human characteristics are influenced by one pair of genes
(called alleles). Mendel found this in plants.
a. Dominant allele – a relatively powerful gene that is expressed phenotypically and masks the effect of
a less powerful gene. Genes that win, like brown colour, good eyesight…
b. Recessive allele – a less powerful gene that is not expressed phenotypically when paired with a
dominant allele. Genes that lose.
c. 3 types of combination: NN – homozygous for brown eyes (two brown eyed people), nn –
homozygous for blue eyes (two blue eyed), Nn – heterozygous – will have brown eyes (one of each).
d. Two brown eyes people having blue eyed child – only if each person Is a heterozygous and so a
carrier of blue eyes gene. The odds are 1 in 4 that a child of Nn parents in blue eyed.
2. Codominance – the phenotype they produce in a comprise between 2 genes. Ex, blood types A and B can
become blood type AB.
3. Sex-linked inheritance – some traits are determined by genes in the sex chromosomes. The majority of sex-
linked attributes are produced by recessive genes found only in X chromosomes. Males are more likely to
inherit these characteristics because if the mother gives a defective X chromosome there is nothing in the Y
chromosome from the father to contradict it. While a female will have the other X chromosome to fight it.
(Stuff like colour-blindness)
4. Polygenic inheritance - characteristics influenced by many genes not only one. Ex: weight, height,
intelligence, skin colour
Chromosomal Abnormalities – when a germ cell divides during meiosis the division of the chromosomes is
sometimes uneven. Most of these abnormalities are lethal and will fail to develop spontaneous aborted.
Many involve the 23rd (sex) chromosome – when males are born with an extra X and Y chromosome,
producing genotype XXY or XYY and females may survive if they inherited just on X or 3 or 4 or even 5 X
chromosomes.
Can happen because of broken or damaged chromosomes.
, Abnormalities of the autosome – most common happens when an abnormal sperm or ovum carrying an
extra autosome combines with a normal gamete to form a zygote that has 47 chromosomes. Here the
chromosome appears along with the 22 pairs and makes 3 chromosomes of that type - trisomy.
o For ex, Down Syndrome - a chromosomal abnormality (also known as trisomy-21) caused by the
presence of an extra 21st chromosome; people with this syndrome have a distinctive physical
appearance, are moderately to severely retarded, have congenital eye, ear and hear defects.
Genetic abnormalities – most are recessive traits – can happens if both parents are healthy but are carriers of the
gene. Some genetic abnormalities are caused by dominant alleles. Sex-linked defects are more common in males
(sex-linked inheritance). They may also come from mutations- changes in the chemical structure of one or more
genes that produce a new phenotype. Mutations – those that are spontaneously, can be induced by environmental
hazards, foods…, can range from being fatal to non-harmful.
Sickle cells anaemia – cause blood cells to bend and result in blood clots. Adaptive mutation, mostly from Africa,
immune to malaria.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)-
metabolic disorder that
left untreated causes
intellectual disability.
Huntington diseases –
CNS deteriorates,
producing problems in
muscle coordination
and mental
deuteriation.
most important: PKU,
sickle cell anaemia and
Huntington diseases.
, Prenatal development is divided in 3 parts:
1. Period of the zygote – from conception through implantation (when the zygote implants itself on the wall of
the uterus), 10-14 days. The zygote becomes a ball like structure called blastocyst
a. Implantation: the burrowing of the blastocyst into the lining of the uterus. ¾ zygotes fail to attach
and die.
b. Characterized by rapid cell division.
c. Once implanted the blastocyst’s outer layer rapidly form major support structures - like the amnion
which fill with fluid from the pregnant women’s tissue. The chorion surrounds the amnion and
eventually becomes the lining of the placenta, the allantois forms the embryo’s umbilical cord later.
d. Until this point alcohol, drugs, etc won’t harm the organism.
2. Period of the embryo – 3rd week to the 8th week – when all the major organs start to form, and the heart
begins to beat. In this period, the embryonic disk has 3 layers:
1. Inner layer (endoderm), future gastrointestinal tract, glands, vital organs…
2. middle layer (mesoderm), future muscles, Skelton, inner skin layer, …
3. outer layer (ectoderm), future sensory cells, NS, skin…
b. Development of the amniotic sac - filled with amniotic fluid which serves as a protective buffer
against physical shock and temperature changes
c. Development of the placenta –site of all metabolic transaction that sustain the embryo. it prevents
the bloodstreams of the mother and the baby from mixing. Its semipermeable so it allows some
substances to pass (like O2 and CO2).
d. Umbilical cord – transmits between placenta and embryo
e. The heart forms and starts beating, the eyes, ears, nose and mouth, and buds that will be arms begin
forming. By the 7th week the embryo has ears well formed and a basic skeleton.
f. If the embryo is male a Y chromosome will trigger a biochemical reaction that give a sign to produce
testes, if its female the gonad receives no sign so starts producing ovaries.
g. 25% of miscarriages happen here.
3. Period of the foetus – 9th week/3rd month till birth. All major organs systems begin to function, and the
developing organism grows rapidly, and the foetus starts to move, sense, and behave not intentionally. The
foetus is now covered in vernix and lanugo to protect them when they come out
a. The male testes secrete testosterone which is responsible for the development of the penis and
scrotum. In the absence of it female genital form – in between periods.
b. Development of muscles and nervous system.
c. The foetus begins to hiccup, move its togue, lips to practice breading. Eyes begin to open and close.
d. Nails and hairs appear.
e. Age of viability – 7 months, when its possible to survive outside the uterus. then it starts positioning
itself to be born because it’s the only position it fits in the uterus. relaxes—a process that tones the
uterine muscles, dilates the cervix, and helps to position the head of the foetus into the gap
between the pelvic bones through which it will soon be pushed.
Potential problems in prenatal development
Teratogens – external agents like viruses, drugs, chemicals, and radiation that can harm a foetus, causing physical
deformities, severely retarded growth, blindness, brain damage or even death. 95% of new-born babies are perfectly
normal. - most threatening in the embryonic stage
Sensitive-period principal - effects of a teratogen on a body part or organ system are worst during the period
when that structure is forming and growing most rapidly.
o every major organ has its own sensitive period which is when each body part is developing. The most
crucial part is the period of the embryo. For the head and CNS is from the 3-5 week. The heart is
particularly vulnerable in the 6th week. Once a body part is fully formed it because a little less
susceptible to damage, but some can be damaged throughout all of pregnancy (eyes, genitals, a CNS)
Individual-difference principal –not all embryos are equally affected by teratogen it depends on embryo’s
susceptibility to harm and the pregnant woman’s genetic makeup and the prenatal environment.
The dosage principal - The longer the exposer to the teratogen the more harm it does.
The long-term effects depend on the postnatal environment.
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