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Endocrinology Syllabus
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ENDOCRINOLOGYSYLLABUS
KLEOPATRA TZAI (S1032639)
Contents
CHAPTER 1 Histology of Endocrine Glands.........................................................3
a. The basic tissues.........................................................................................3
b. Hypophysis/Pituitary...................................................................................4
c. Adrenal gland..............................................................................................7
d. Thyroid gland..............................................................................................8
e. Pancreas......................................................................................................9
f. Testis..........................................................................................................10
f. Ovary.........................................................................................................12
g. Experiments..............................................................................................13
CHAPTER 2 Mechanisms of Hormones Action..................................................14
a. How do cells communicate?......................................................................14
b. Four types of hormones............................................................................14
c. Mechanisms of action................................................................................15
d. Pathologies................................................................................................16
CHAPTER 3 Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axis--The Stress Axis...............................17
a. Short Intro to immunohistology................................................................17
b. The hypothalamus....................................................................................17
c. The stress axis (HPA Axis).........................................................................18
d. Pathologies................................................................................................20
CHAPTER 4 Endocrinology of the Adrenal Glands and Pathologies..................20
b. Pathologies................................................................................................22
c. Catecholamines of the adrenal medulla...................................................25
d. Pathologies................................................................................................26
CHAPTER 5 Endocrinology of the Pancreas and Pathologies...........................27
a. Normal glucose metabolism.....................................................................27
b. Normal insulin secretion...........................................................................27
c. Non-diabetes disorders of the pancreas...................................................28
d. Diabetes mellitus......................................................................................29
CHAPTER 6 Hormones and Reproduction.........................................................30
a. Female sex hormones...............................................................................30
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, b. Male sex hormones...................................................................................33
CHAPTER 7 Endocrinology of the Thyroid Gland and Pathologies....................35
a. Basics........................................................................................................35
b. Histological organization of the gland......................................................35
c. Biosynthesis..............................................................................................35
d. Metabolism................................................................................................36
e. Nuclear receptors......................................................................................36
f. Pathologies................................................................................................37
CHAPTER 8 Growth Hormone...........................................................................38
a. The very first experiments.......................................................................38
b. Components of the growth hormone........................................................38
c. Pathologies................................................................................................39
d. Ghrelin......................................................................................................40
CHAPTER 9 Endocrinology of Energy Homeostasis..........................................40
a. Obesity......................................................................................................40
b. Peripheral signals......................................................................................40
c. Integration of signals.................................................................................41
CHAPTER 10 Calcium regulation and Osteoporosis..........................................42
a. Vertebrate calcium use.............................................................................42
b. Endocrine calcium regulation...................................................................42
c. Calciotropic hormones and bone physiology............................................43
d. Osteoporosis.............................................................................................45
CHAPTER 11 Endocrinology of the Digestive Track..........................................45
a. The system................................................................................................45
b. Four GI hormones and their function........................................................46
c. Pathologies................................................................................................48
CHAPTER 12 Hormones and tumors.................................................................48
a. Hormone therapy and breast cancer........................................................48
b. Therapy.....................................................................................................49
c. New developments....................................................................................50
REFERENCES....................................................................................................50
APPENDIX.........................................................................................................52
a. Pre-Lab Questions.....................................................................................52
Experiment 1............................................................................................52
Experiment 2.............................................................................................52
b. Brief Results and Conclusion.....................................................................55
Experiment 2.............................................................................................55
Experiment 3.............................................................................................57
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, c. The posters................................................................................................59
d. Feedback...................................................................................................62
CHAPTER 1
Histology of Endocrine Glands
a. The basic tissues
All organs are built from the four basic tissues:
1. Epithelium: covering the outside of the body and the inside of a
lumen (tubes)
- Covering epithelial cells cover a surface or the inside of the lumen and
their function is to absorb nutrients (in the intestinal system) and gasses
(in the airy system).
3 types of epithelium tissue based on the cell type:
Single-layered flat epithelium (squamous)
Single-layered cuboidal epithelium (square)
Single-layered columnar epithelium (rectangle)
Flat cells are sometimes associated with the fact that they are not so
active due to their shape. On the other hand, columnar cells appear to be
more active as their bigger shape allows them to have more cytoplasm
more cell organelles
- Gland epithelial cells produce and release specific products that either
leave the body or end up in the lumen of an organ
Gland epithelial cells can be:
Exocrines: the product will be delivered by an exit tube to the
lumen or the outside of the body
Endocrines: they do not have an exit tube; the cells are clustered
together and close to capillaries (blood vessels). These glans cells
produce hormones which they want to deliver directly to blood cells
which will transfer them through the blood circulation system to the
target.
2. Connective tissue: providing support and protection, rich in
extracellular substances like proteins
3. Muscle tissue: provides contraction and moving of the body
4. Nervous tissue: excitable cells, neurons with long axons
3
, b. Hypophysis/Pituitary
The main endocrine gland that produces hormones that influence other
endocrine glands by directing them to produce their hormones. It is a
bean-shaped gland that is located at the base of the brain and it consists
of two parts.
Posterior pituitary/Posterior neuro-hypophysis
The neurons part of the pituitary is called pars nervoza.
Hypothalamic neuron cells have very long non-myelinised axons that
reach the neuro-hypophysis. Hormones that are produced in the
hypothalamus are transferred through those axons and are temporarily
stored in the axon ending (in pars nervosa). Two hormones that are
produced this way, by neuroendocrine cells, they are released in
capillaries that are located nearby and then travel through the entire body
to reach their target. These hormones are oxytocin and ADH (anti-diuretic
hormone)
a. Oxytocin: in females the smooth muscle cells in the uterus have
oxytocin which is released in the beginning of labor by the neuro
hypophysis the muscles of the uterus start to contract very
strongly. During breastfeeding oxytocin is released when the
mother hears the crying of the baby the epithelial cells
surrounding the milk glands contract release of the milk.
b. ADH: when it is released form the neuro-hypophysis it enters the
blood circulation. The target cells of ADH are present in the kidney
tubules. ADH makes sure that more water is being re-absorbed from
the urine less water in the urine. There are substances that block
the release of ADH like alcohol no extra water absorbed from
urine more production of urine.
Anterior pituitary/Anterior adeno-hypophysis
The rest part of the
pituitary is called pars
distalis.
A primary plexus of
capillaries is
localized near the
hypothalamic
median eminence
and it supplies blood,
water and nutrients
(eminentia mediana)
A secondary plexus
feeds the pars Figure 1: The pituitary. The anterior and posterior parts with
distalis. their subparts are depicted.1
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