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Summary of China
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1China
Before 1000 BC
China
The North China Plain's has potential as an imperial heartland, offering insights into its geography,
historical shifts, and the emergence of imperial ideologies. Covering an expanse of over 400,000 square
kilometers, the North China Plain, shaped by the Yellow River, extends from modern-day Beijing to Shanghai
and reaches inland, bordered by the Yanshan and Taihang mountain ranges. This region constitutes about
5% of present-day China's landmass.
As the Iron Age began, this once-forested plain underwent a transformation, making way for extensive
farmland. It was inhabited by diverse societies like the Wei and Qi, while surrounding valleys were home to
the Qin and Zhou civilizations. Beyond its borders resided various barbarian groups such as the Xirong,
Beidi, and Nanman. Contrary to the common perception of China's consistent imperial history, the region
experienced fragmentation and periods of warfare. It wasn't until the 18th century CE that China would be
truly united.
Around 1600 BCE, the Shang kingdom achieved a degree of unification on the North China Plain.
Despite limited historical records, the tomb of Fu Hao and inscriptions on tortoise shells provide glimpses
into Shang society. These inscriptions reflect a state in constant conflict with neighboring lands labeled as
the "devil's lands." However, by approximately 1200 BCE, these inscriptions dwindled, marking the decline
of the Shang Dynasty.
In 1046 BCE, the Zhou state and its allies brought an end to the Shang Dynasty in the Battle of Muye.
This monumental event involved an estimated one million participants, and the Zhou rulers justified their
actions by claiming a mandate from heaven. This concept, marking the Zhou rule as divinely ordained, gave
rise to the idea of China as the "Middle Kingdom," with its ruler known as the "Son of Heaven."
The early Zhou kings united disparate states and aimed to restore order. The mandate of heaven philosophy
suggested that rulers held the divine right to govern, establishing themselves as the central authority beneath
the heavens. "Great peace" was the ultimate aspiration, with rulers upholding the celestial principles to
maintain harmony in the world. This political landscape resembled that of Mesopotamia and Egypt – fertile
lands fostering population growth yet divided among competing cities and rulers.
Fenghao, a small city on the outskirts of the North China Plain, became the capital of the Zhou kings.
Through this choice, the Zhou contributed to the development of imperial ideologies centered on the mandate
of heaven. This ideology, rooted in the principles of divine legitimacy, greatly influenced China's historical
trajectory and the formation of its unique identity.
, 2
1000-750 BC
Chinese Rites
The decline of the Zhou Dynasty during the early first millennium BCE was a pivotal event that
significantly shaped the trajectory of the North China Plain. Emerging victorious in their clash against the
Shang Dynasty at the Battle of Muye in 1046 BCE, the Zhou Dynasty immediately encountered internal
discord. Following the passing of the dynasty's inaugural king, power struggles ensued among envious
uncles, a situation that Prince Cheng of Zhou, supported by the Duke of Zhou, eventually managed to
navigate. Cheng ascended to the throne in 1042 BCE.
The Duke of Zhou, renowned as a sagacious strategic thinker in Chinese history, imparted valuable lessons
to the new king, emphasizing the virtues of moderation and the avoidance of extravagance. A sentiment
attributed to him reads, "The superior man rests in this, – that he will indulge in no luxurious ease." This
notion of linking the arduous toil of sowing and reaping to the foundation of society underscored the Duke's
teachings. The consolidation of Cheng's power over the North China Plain and his ventures into the central
flatlands of China were marked by decisive leadership. The Zhou rulers governed from the impressive new
capital of Chengzhou, which was designed as a formidable quadrangle, fortified by towering walls and
accessible through fortified gates on all sides.
A comprehensive understanding of the governance and societal structures during the Zhou Dynasty is
afforded by the Book of Rites. The hierarchy of regional leaders spanned five ranks from duke to baron. The
king held a paramount position as the ultimate arbiter, overseeing a network of regional administrations.
Regular inspection tours, summoning regional leaders to the court, and fostering an environment of mutual
support characterized the Zhou's approach to leadership. Diplomacy and external trade flourished, facilitated
by markets at borders and the dispatch of envoys and interpreters. Emphasis on both domestic and foreign
relations is evident in King Cheng's testament, urging the promotion of amicable ties with neighboring
territories.
Bronze inscriptions on ritual vessels detail the complexities of warfare and the rules guiding it. Notably, the
use of chariots equipped with archers marked a notable military innovation of the Zhou. In the face of
formidable adversaries such as the Dongyi, Xianyun, Guifang, and Chu states, the Zhou maintained a
mocking stance toward their rivals. Battles and conquests were documented on bronze artifacts, such as
King Kang of Zhou's triumph over the Guifang and Dongyi. The victory parade following this conquest
showcases the extent of success with trophies, captives, chariots, and livestock.
However, the Zhou Dynasty's historical narrative was marked by a shift towards setbacks. King Zhao of
Zhou's venture against the Chu in 970 BCE resulted in defeat and signaled the advent of an era of
decline. This decline was accentuated by military campaigns, increasing taxes, and alliances forged
against the Zhou. The ninth century witnessed the formation of a coalition of thirty-six eastern states by
the Chu, initiating a period of military defeats, peasant revolts, and barbarian incursions.
, 3
By 771 BCE, the Zhou Dynasty faced a critical juncture as barbarian forces sacked the capital and King
You was killed. The ensuing decades witnessed further decline as vassals abandoned the Zhou and unity
dissolved into anarchy. The dynasty's capital shifted to Luoyang, with royal authority and social order
gradually restored under King Xuang in 828 BCE. The Zhou state responded to external threats, intervened
in succession crises of vassal states, and engaged in military campaigns.
In summary, the decline of the Zhou Dynasty marked a pivotal turning point in the history of the North China
Plain. The dynasty's early successes, consolidation of power, and eventual decline are reflected in historical
records and inscriptions on bronze artifacts. The Zhou's use of chariots and large armies to assert control,
coupled with technological innovation and diplomatic endeavors, shaped the region's political landscape.
Ultimately, the Zhou's decline led to a fragmented era characterized by incessant conflict and internal strife
during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods.
750-500 BC
Beyond the Indus (not all of chapter)
During the time of the weakened Zhou Dynasty, China faced internal turmoil and struggles among various
states. The philosopher Mencius described a deteriorating world marked by oppression and violence.
Confucius, a renowned sage, served as an advisor in the state of Lu, which had lost its power due to internal
strife and neighboring competition. Surrounding states like Qi, Song, Jin, Chu, and Qin vied for dominance,
seeking to claim the role of "hegemon" granted by the symbolic authority of the Zhou Dynasty.
Confucius observed these conflicts and saw the rise of the Wu state, led by the strategist Sun Tzu, known for
his military strategy and emphasis on deception. The Wu's dominance was eventually challenged by the Yue
state. This era, known as the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BCE), was marked by continuous conflict
among Chinese states, with security on one border often leading to challenges on another. However, it
was also a time of consolidation as larger city-states emerged, absorbing smaller towns and specializing in
crafts. Trade became crucial, facilitated by the introduction of coins. Cities grew in scale with grand temple
complexes, palaces, ironworks, and extensive infrastructure.
Innovative military technologies like the crossbow were adopted, initially imported from Southeast Asia, as
states competed fiercely to serve the most powerful rulers. Despite the conflicts, the era witnessed a
reduction in the number of states, with consolidation leading to the emergence of more significant
political entities. This dynamic period shaped China's history and set the stage for its future development.
During the Spring and Autumn period, which was marked by frequent wars and conflicts, diplomacy played
a crucial role alongside military actions. While kingdoms engaged in battles and wars that often required the
sacrifice of their young men, the era was also characterized by intense diplomatic efforts. Lesser states
pragmatically navigated alliances and allegiances, frequently shifting between different allies to serve their
interests.
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