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Samenvatting tentamen Developmental Psychopathology
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Chapter 1: introductionDevelopmental psychopathology suggest that we gain a better understanding of children’s disorders
when we think about those disorders within the context of typical development.
Psychopathology refers to intense, frequent and/or persistent maladaptive patterns of emotion,
cognition and behavior. Developmental psychopathology extends this description to emphasize that
these maladaptive patterns occur in the context of typical development and result in the current and
potential impairment of infants, children and adolescents.
One of the first steps leading to accurate and useful conceptualizations of psychopathology is to
recognize the many connections between typical and atypical development. You have to emphasize
that a useful model of typical development requires a dynamic appreciation of children’s strengths
and weaknesses as they experience salient, age-related challenges.
Major issue Additional issues
Infancy Formation of an effective - Basic state and arousal
attachment regulation
- Development of
reciprocity
- Dyadic regulation of
emotion
Toddler period Guided self-regulation - Increased autonomy
- Increased awareness of
self and others
- Awareness of
standards for behavior
- Self-conscious
emotions
Preschool period Self-regulation - Self-reliance with
support
- Self-management
- Expanding social world
- Internalization of rules
and values
School Years Competence - Personal efficacy
- Self-integration
- Competence with
peers
- Competence in school
Adolescence Individuation - Autonomy with
connectedness
- Identity
- Peer network
competence
- Coordinating school,
work and social life
Transition to Emancipation - Launching a life course
adulthood - Financial responsibility
- Adult social
, competence
- Coordinating work,
training, career and life
Common descriptions of normality and psychopathology often focus on:
1. Statistical deviance: the infrequency of certain emotions, cognitions and/or behaviors
2. Sociocultural norms: the beliefs and expectations of certain groups about what kinds of
emotions, cognitions and/or behaviors are undesirable or unacceptable
Depending on the particular social and cultural settings, norms will vary, but there will always
be certain patterns of emotion, cognition and behavior that are considered evidence of
psychopathology
With sociocultural definitions, value judgments are the very basis of definitions of disorders
3. Mental health perspectives, theoretical or clinically based notions of distress and dysfunction
Adequate adaption has to do with what is considered okay, acceptable or good enough. Optimal
adaptation has to do with what is excellent, superior, or ‘’the best of what is possible’’. Therefore a
child must have:
- The need for ongoing nurturing relationships
- The need for physical protection, safety, and regulation
- The need for experiences tailored to individual differences
- The need for developmentally appropriate experiences
- The need for limit setting, structure and expectations
- The need for stable, supportive communities and cultural continuity
Developmental epidemiology: frequencies and patterns of distributions of disorders in infants,
children and adolescents.
Prevalence refers to the proportion of a population with a disorder, incidence refers to the rate at
which new cases arise.
Barriers to care: factors that impede access to mental health services, including structural barriers
such as lack of provider availability, inconveniently located services, transportation difficulties,
inability to pay, inadequate insurance coverage, or both. Individual barriers such as denial of
problems or lack of trust in the system. Sociocultural barriers such as the stigma of psychopathology
or mental illness.
Discussions of mental health and mental illness involving resource allocation and public policy
increasingly emphasize global perspectives that require careful thinking about Western models of
development, disorder and intervention, as well as the vastly different experiences of children who
live in resource-rich vs. resource poor countries.
Stigmatization: negative attitudes (such as blaming/overconcern), emotions and behaviors related to
psychopathology and mental illness.
,Chapter 2: Models of child development, psychopathology and treatment
Dimensional models of psychopathology: emphasize the ways in which typical feelings, thoughts and
behaviors gradually become more serious problems, when they may intensify and become clinically
diagnosable disorders. Dimensional models also are referred to as continuous or quantitative.
Categorical models of psychopathology: emphasize discrete and qualitative differences in individual
patterns of emotion, cognition and behavior. Sometimes referred to as discontinuous or qualitative.
Physiological models of psychopathology: emphasize biological processes, such as genes and
neurological systems, as being the core of the human experience.
Polygenic models of psychopathology: emphasize the likelihood that many genes have small effects
and attempt to account for the multiple types of genetic variations and processes that result in
genetic burdens that influence the development of both mild and severe forms of disorders.
Diathesis-stress model: emphasizes the combination of underlying predispositions (risk factors
related to trauma for example) and additional factors (environmental events for example) that lead
to the development of psychopathology.
Psychodynamic models: emphasize unconscious cognitive, affective and motivational processes;
mental representations of self, others and relationships; the subjectivity of experience; and a
developmental perspective on individual adjustment and maladjustment. If you fail to work through
developmental issues, you become ‘’stuck’’ in the past.
Behavioral models: emphasize the individual’s observable behavior within a specific environment.
Environmental variables have powerful effects on the development of personality and
psychopathology. Includes:
- Classical conditioning: form of associative learning in which certain stimuli become paired
with other stimuli resulting in the reliable elication of a response
- Operant conditioning: form of learning in which consequences lead to changes in behavior
- Observational learning: form of learning that occurs by watching, remembering and/or
imitating others
Reinforcement: the idea that positive and negative consequences lead to changes in behavior
Cognitive models: focuses on the components and processes of the mind and mental development
Humanistic models: emphasize personally meaningful experiences, innate motivations for healthy
growth and the child’s purposeful creation of a self. Psychopathology is usually linked to interference
with or suppression of the child’s natural tendencies to develop an integrated sense of self, with
valued abilities and talents.
Family models: propose that the best way to understand the personality and psychopathology of
particular children is to understand the dynamics of their particular families. Because families are the
first setting for children’s experiences; influence of families, parents in particular, is clear and
powerful. Factors can be:
- Shared environment: aspects of family life and function that are shared by all children in the
family
, - Nonshared environment: aspects of family life and function that are specific and distinct for
each child
Sociocultural models: emphasize the importance of the social context, including gender, race,
ethnicity and socioeconomic status in the development, course, and treatment of psychopathology.
Often focuses on the ways in which social and cultural factors uniquely disadvantage certain groups
in society and increase vulnerability to disorders in these groups. Cultural is a major influence of
development and must be examined in terms of both individual-level culture and social-level culture.
Ecological models: emphasizes the immediate environments or ‘’behavior settings’’, in which children
grow and make sense of their lives, including their homes, classrooms, neighborhoods and
communities.
Think about how the understandings of children and their development are specific cultural
contexts
Explore both similarities and differences related to parental discipline
Consider the possibility that transactions among multiple components of culture contribute
to individual differences in adolescent well-being.
Positive psychology: field of psychology focusing on positive subjective experience, positive individual
traits and positive institutions that seek to promote individual, family, social and community well-
being.
In contrast to explanations of microscopic connectivity (e.g., between neurons), explanations of the
connectome (the diagram of the brain’s neural connections) focus on macroscopic connectivity (e.g.,
between brain regions), and include descriptions of nodes, hubs, and modules (Collin & van den
Heuvel, 2013; also see Figure 2:2). Nodes are understood in the context of numbers of connections,
distances between them (i.e., the path length of connections), centrality, and clustering. Hubs are
nodes with extensive connections to other nodes. Modules are groups of nodes with strong
interconnections.
Some suggest that some brain areas (such as the frontal cortex) develop under ‘’tight genetic
control’’, whereas other areas are more influenced by the environment. Sensitive (or critical) periods
in brain development have also been identified, some of which appear domain or component
dependent (in the auditory system or for specific components of language).
Comparisons of non-crawling infants, beginning crawlers, and experienced crawlers provide evidence
that brain development specific to crawling involves an initial overproduction of cortical connections
that are then “pruned” with additional crawling experience. This pattern of production and pruning
illustrates how the brain’s development responds to environmental feedback, resulting in
increasingly efficient processing.
Neural plasticity illustrates several physiological processes related to brain development,
organization, and reorganization. It involves the development and modification of neural circuits,
with now-conclusive evidence that ‘’both positive and negative experiences can influence the wiring
diagram of the brain’’.
We need to understand the many ways that the genetic makeup of an individual, or genotype,
influences the observable characteristics of an individual, or phenotype. The understanding of
genetics is ever expanding and involves work in both behavior genetics (study of the joint effects of
genes and environments) and molecular genetics (studies of the effects of specific genes at the DNA
level).
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