Chapter 10. Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder..................................................................30
Chapter 11. Anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder and somatic symptom disorders...................36
Chapter 12. Depressive disorders, bipolar disorders, and suicidality.............................................................38
Chapter 14. Substance-Related Disorders, Personality Disorders, and Psychotic Disorders............................47
Chapter 1. Introduction
Descriptions of normality and psychopathology often focus on:
- Statistical deviance: the infrequency of certain emotions, cognitions, and/or
behaviors.
, o A child who displays too much of any age-expected behavior or too little of
any expected behavior, might have a disorder.
- Sociocultural norms: the beliefs and expectations—in a given time or place or of
a group of people—about what kinds of emotions, cognitions, and/or behaviors
are problematic, undesirable, or unacceptable.
o Children who fail to conform to age-related, gender-specific, or culture-
relevant expectations might be viewed as challenging, struggling, or
disordered.
- Mental health definitions: theoretical or clinically based notions of distress and
dysfunction
o Children who have a negative quality of life, who function poorly, or who
exhibit certain kinds of symptoms might have a disorder.
Adequate adaptation: what is considered okay, acceptable or good enough.
Optimal adaptation: what is excellent, superior or the best of what is possible.
Satisfaction of the following needs –from birth to adulthood– is an index of concern,
compassion and commitment to children’s well-being:
- The need for ongoing nurturing relationships.
- The need for physical protection, safety, and regulation.
- The need for experiences tailored to individual differences.
- The need for developmentally appropriate experiences.
- The need for limit setting, structure, and expectations.
- The need for stable, supportive communities and cultural continuity.
Psychopathology refers to intense, frequent, and/or persistent maladaptive patterns of
emotion, cognition, and behavior. Developmental psychopathology extends this
description to emphasize that these maladaptive patterns occur in the context of typical
development and result in the current and potential impairment of infants, children, and
adolescents.
Prevalence: the proportion of a population with a disorder.
Incidence: the rate at which new cases arise.
Chapter 2. Models of Child Development, Psychopathology, and
Treatment
Dimensional models of psychopathology emphasize the ways in which typical
feelings, thoughts, and behaviors gradually become more serious problems, which then
may intensify and become clinically diagnosable disorders. With dimensional models,
there are no sharp distinctions between adjustment and maladjustment. Dimensional
models also are referred to as continuous or quantitative.
Categorical models of psychopathology emphasize discrete and qualitative
differences in individual patterns of emotion, cognition, and behavior. With categorical
models, there are clear distinctions between what is normal and what is not. Categorical
models are sometimes referred to as discontinuous or qualitative.
Physiological models propose that there is a physiological —a genetic, structural,
biological, and/or chemical—basis for all psychological processes and events.
, - Atypical brain structure such as reduced gray matter volume is frequently
observed in youths with disorders. This reduced volume is associated with
general distress and dysfunction rather than with a specific disorder.
- Atypical white matter microstructures and lower rates of myelination are also
notable in children and adolescents with disorders.
Sensitive periods in brain development are times when environments have especially
powerful and enduring impacts.
Three types of gene-by-environment effects:
1. Passive correlations, in which children are exposed to different environments
provided by their genetically related parents.
2. Active correlations, in which children select or create their own environments as
a function of their genetic background.
3. Evocative correlations, in which children experience different reactions or
responses to their genetically influenced emotions or behaviors.
Diathesis-stress model: a model that emphasizes the combination of underlying
predispositions (risk factors) and additional factors (such as further physiological or
environmental events) that lead to the development of psychopathology.
Differential susceptibility: maintains that some children are, at a genetic and biological
level, very sensitive to both positive and negative aspects of their environments.
- Although it is true that some children are differentially vulnerable to stressful
environments (i.e., these children do worse than others in similarly adverse
circumstances), it is also true that these same children differentially thrive with
developmentally appropriate and encouraging environments (i.e., these children
do better than others in similarly nurturing circumstances)
Psychodynamic theorists and clinicians suggested that individuals who failed to work
through developmental issues become “stuck” in the past. Disorders themselves were
rooted in traumas or conflicts experienced during early childhood.
Mentalizing: the capacity to understand others and oneself in terms of internal mental
states.
Behavioral models have an outward orientation, focusing on the individual’s
observable behavior within specific environments. These theories propose that both
typical and atypical behaviors are gradually acquired via processes of learning.
- Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning
- Observational learning
Cognitive models focus on the components and processes of the mind. Asserts that
individuals who are in distress tend to experience distorted thinking and/or unrealistic
cognitive appraisals of events, which in turn negatively affect their behaviors, feelings,
and even physiological responses.
, Humanistic models emphasize personally meaningful experiences, innate motivations
for healthy growth, and the child’s purposeful creation of self.
Positive psychology focus on positive subjective experience, positive individual traits,
and positive institutions that seeks to promote individual, family, social, and community
well-being.
Family models propose that the best way to understand the personality and
psychopathology of particular children is to understand the dynamics of their particular
families.
Sociocultural models: emphasize the importance of the social context, including
gender, race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, in the development, course, and
treatment of psychopathology.
Chapter 3. Principles and practices of developmental
psychopathology
Developmental pathways: trajectories that reflect children’s adjustment,
maladjustment, or both in the context of growth and change over
a lifetime.
Equifinality: refers to developmental pathways in which
differing beginnings and circumstances lead to similar outcomes.
Multifinality: refers to developmental pathways in which similar
beginnings and circumstances lead to different outcomes.
Coherence: from a developmental perspective, reflects the
logical and meaningful links between early developmental
variables and later outcomes.
Competence: reflects effective functioning in important
environments.
Three domains of competence in younger school-aged children:
1. Academic achievement
2. Behavioral competence
3. Social competence
During adolescence two more domains appear:
4. Romantic competence
5. Job competence
Children who are competent in one area are somewhat more likely to be competent in
other areas.
The positive youth development model identifies dimensions of healthy adjustment:
- The strengths of competence - Caring
- Confidence - Connection
- Character - Contribution
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