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Summary Chapter 8 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

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Detailed summary of Chapter 8: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence, in Michael Gazzaniga's 'Pscyhological Science' fifth edition.

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  • Chapter 8
  • October 16, 2017
  • 12
  • 2017/2018
  • Summary

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Introduction to psychology
Chapter 8: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
8.1 What is Thought?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
 Distinguish between analogical and symbolic representations.
 Describe the defining prototype and exemplar models of concepts.
 Discuss the and negative consequences of using schemas and scripts.


 Cognition: the mental activity that includes thinking and the understandings that
result from thinking.
Cognitive psychology was originally based on two ideas about thinking:
1. Knowledge about the world is stored in the brain in representations.
2. Thinking is the mental manipulation of these representations
 Thinking: the mental manipulation of representations of knowledge about the world.


Thinking Involves Two Types of Mental Representations
 Analogical Representations: mental representations that have some of the physical
characteristics of objects; they are analogous to the objects.
 Symbolic Representations: abstract mental representations that do not correspond
to the physical features of objects or ideas.


Concepts Are Symbolic Representations
 Concept: a category, or class, of related items; it consists of mental representations
of those items.
 Prototype Model: a way of thinking about concepts: within each category, there is a
best example – a prototype – for that category.
 Exemplar Model: a way of thinking about concepts: all members of a category are
examples (exemplars); together they form the concept and determine category
membership.
Schemas Organize Useful Information About Environments
 Stereotypes: cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information
about people based on their membership in certain groups.

,  Script: a schema that directs behavior over time within a situation.
Schemas and scripts are adaptive because they minimize attentional requirements and help
people avoid dangerous situations. A negative consequence of schemas and scripts is that
they may reinforce stereotypes and biases.


8.2 How Do We Make Decisions and Solve Problems?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
 Distinguish between normative and descriptive models of decision making.
 Explain how heuristics influence decision making.
 Review strategies that facilitate insight and problem solving.


 Decision Making: attempting to select the best alternative from among several
options.
 Problem Solving: finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal.


Decision Making Often Involves Heuristics
 Normative Decision Theories: attempts to refine how people should make decisions.
 Expected Utility Theory: people make decisions by considering the possible
alternatives and choosing the most desirable one.
 Descriptive Decision Theories: attempts to predict how people actually make
choices, not to define ideal choices.
 Heuristics: shortcuts (rules of thumb or informal guidelines) used to reduce the
amount of thinking that is needed to make decisions.




Relative Comparisons (Anchoring and Framing)
 Anchoring: the tendency, in making judgements, to rely on the first piece of
information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind.
 Framing: in decision making, the tendency to emphasize the potential losses or
potential gains from at least one alternative.

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