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Summary literature exam 2 Research Methods for Analyzing Complex Problems (AM_1182)
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Summary lectures exam 2 Research Methods for Analyzing Complex Problems (AM_1182)
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Summary lectures exam 1 Research Methods for Analyzing Complex Problems (AM_1182)
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Lecture 1: Research perspectives, research objective and researchquestions
The different epistemological stances:
Objectivism
Reality exist independently of consciousness – in other words, there is an objective reality
‘out there’. Research is about discovering this objective truth. Researchers should strive not
to include their own feeling and values.
Objectivism emphasizes reason as the primary means of understanding and interacting with
reality. It rejects faith, mysticism, and emotions as reliable sources of knowledge. According
to Objectivism, knowledge is acquired through the use of reason and the scientific method.
Connected to theoretical perspective: positivism: there is only one reality/truth. Reality can
be measured. Knowledge can be formulated into laws.
Constructivism
Truth and meaning do not exist in some external world, but are created by the subject’s
interactions with the world. Meaning is constructed (= gemaakt/gecreeerd) not discovered.
Subjects construct their own meaning in different ways, even in relation to the same
phenomenon.
Constructivism is a broad educational and philosophical theory that suggests learners
actively construct their own knowledge and understanding of the world through their
experiences, interactions, and reflections.
Connected to theoretical perspective: interpretivism: multiple, contradictory but equally
valid accounts of the world can exist. Knowledge is contextual.
Subjectivism
Meaning is imposed by the subject on the object. Subjects do construct meaning, but fo so
from within collective unconsciousness, from cultural and religious beliefs, etc.
Example of a theoretical perspective linked to subjectivism: postmodernism. Postmodernism
emphasis multiplicity, ambiguity, ambivalence and fragmentation.
Theoretical perspectives: critical inquiry
This critical form of research is a meta-process of investigation, which questions currently
held values and assumptions and challenges conventional social structures.
The critical inquiry perspective is not content to interpret the world but also seeks to change
it.
The assumptions that lie beneath critical inquiry are that: Ideas are mediated by power
relations in society.
- Positivism
- Interpretivism
Epistemic injustice
1
,Injustice related to knowledge e.g., exclusion, silencing, misrepresentation, undervaluing.
Global Health/ Health Sciences is a field where there still is the tendency to disregards local
and indigenous knowledge and refuses to learn from people often deemed to be lesser.
Epistemic injustice refers to a form of injustice in which someone is wronged specifically in
their capacity as a knower or a communicator of knowledge. In the context of health
sciences, epistemic injustice can manifest in several ways. Here are some examples:
- Disregarding Patient Testimony: When healthcare providers dismiss or downplay a patient's
description of their symptoms, experiences, or concerns, it can be a form of epistemic injustice.
This can lead to misdiagnoses or delayed treatment because the patient's knowledge of their own
body and experiences is not taken seriously.
- Stereotyping and Bias: Healthcare professionals may hold biases based on race, gender, age, or
other factors, which can result in epistemic injustice. For example, a doctor may assume that a
person from a certain racial or ethnic background is more likely to have a particular condition,
potentially leading to misdiagnosis or inadequate treatment.
- Ignoring Indigenous or Traditional Knowledge: In some cases, Western medicine may dismiss or
disregard indigenous or traditional forms of healing and knowledge. This can be a form of
epistemic injustice by failing to recognize the value of diverse knowledge systems.
- Inadequate Representation in Research: If certain populations are consistently underrepresented
in medical research studies, their unique health concerns and needs may be overlooked or
misunderstood. This lack of representation can perpetuate epistemic injustice by limiting our
understanding of health in these communities.
- Language and Communication Barriers: Patients with limited proficiency in the dominant
language of a healthcare system may experience epistemic injustice if their difficulties in
communication lead to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of their health issues.
- Inequities in Access to Healthcare Information: Some individuals or communities may lack access
to quality healthcare information due to socioeconomic disparities or limited healthcare
resources in their area. This lack of access can result in epistemic injustice by denying them the
knowledge needed to make informed health decisions.
- Cultural Insensitivity: Healthcare professionals who are culturally insensitive or unfamiliar with
the cultural beliefs and practices of their patients may fail to understand or respect the patient's
perspectives on health and healing.
- Gendered Epistemic Injustice: Gender bias can affect both patients and healthcare providers. For
instance, women's pain may be taken less seriously than men's pain, leading to delayed diagnoses
or inadequate pain management. Female healthcare providers may also experience gender-based
epistemic injustice in a male-dominated field.
- Disability and Epistemic Injustice: People with disabilities may face epistemic injustice when their
knowledge and experiences are dismissed or invalidated. This can happen when healthcare
providers assume that a person with a disability cannot accurately communicate their needs or
experiences.
Addressing epistemic injustice in healthcare is essential for promoting equitable access to
healthcare and improving health outcomes for all individuals and communities. It involves
recognizing the value of diverse forms of knowledge, addressing biases and stereotypes, and
actively listening to and respecting the knowledge and experiences of patients and
healthcare providers from all backgrounds.
Objective and research question
Epistemology and theoretical perspective
2
,Research process
Research objective
The research objective is …(a)… by …(b)… (or …b… in order …(a)…)
a) External objective = contribution of your research project to solution of the problem/
what results can be expected
b) Internal objective = the way in which this will be done/ the insights, information,
knowledge needed = very similar to your research question
Main points of lecture 1
- In order to understand and address complex problems in Health Sciences we need a
range of e.g., research methods, research methodologies
- The four elements (e.g., epistemology, theory, methodology and methods) are always
present in a research project and they are closely related and co-dependent
3
, - In Health Sciences and in this course we work with all approaches and perspectives
e.g.:
o objectivism: there is an objective reality ‘out there’
o Constructivism: subjects construct their own meaning in different ways
o Subjectivism: meaning is imposed by the subject on the object (=betekenis
wordt door het onderwerp aan het voorwerp opgelegd)
- Exploring your own theory of knowledge and theoretical perspectives is important
because it influences your choices
- Research topic -> research objective -> research questions
Lecture 2: Conceptual frameworks and operationalizing your research
Deductive approaches
Researchers collect and analyse data using clearly defined theories and concepts. Thereby
aiming at verifying or falsifying theory/ hypothesis
Inductive approaches
Aim to collecting empirical data far less structured and let meaning arise from this data. They
intend to contribute to the development of new theory, although these theories are often
bound to the context where they emerged.
Inductive and deductive reasoning are two fundamental approaches to making conclusions
or drawing inferences, and they differ in their processes and the level of certainty they
provide:
1. Inductive Reasoning:
Inductive reasoning is a method of reasoning that involves making generalizations based on
specific observations or evidence. It moves from specific instances to broader, more
generalized conclusions. Inductive reasoning does not guarantee absolute truth in its
conclusions; instead, it suggests that the conclusions are likely or probable based on the
evidence at hand.
Conclusion: You infer that the general statement is likely to be true, but it is not necessarily
proven.
Example of Inductive Reasoning:
You observe that every time you wake up early and exercise, you feel more energetic
throughout the day.
You generalize from these specific instances and conclude that regular exercise in the
morning probably leads to increased daytime energy.
Inductive reasoning is commonly used in scientific research to generate hypotheses,
inductive generalizations, and theories. However, it is important to note that inductive
conclusions are not certain; they are based on the evidence available and may need to be
revised with new data.
2. Deductive Reasoning:
Deductive reasoning is a method of reasoning that involves drawing specific conclusions
from general principles or premises. It moves from a broad, general statement to a more
4
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