Summary
Samenvatting - Introduction Psychology and Its Methods (XB_0069)
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Main topics of the lectures combined with the book.
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Lecture 1: GeneViolent person behaviour:
- 70 – 80’s → Environment
- 90’s → Genes (erfelijkheid)
- Today → Both
23 pairs of chromosomes → 46 in total
- Instructions on how to build and operate a body
DNA double helix shape:
- consists of (A + T) & (G + C) → base
- Four bases in total → 2 pairs
- Connected by Sugar and phosphate molecule → handrails.
Part of de DNA string = Gene.
Each gene will be read by tRNA, mRNA to make proteins.
Methylation → comes from environment/behaviour/random events.
- Can inactivate a gene.
Genotype → set of genes of a specific organism.
Phenotype → character and behavior
- Genotype x environment
Monozygotic twins → Same genes but different behaviour
- So, the genotype can be the same but the phenotype is different.
Alleles → similar genes located at the same position in chromosome and do similar tasks
but vary slightly.
- One gene is dominant other recessive. The color of the eye will therefore be
determined.
o Both the same? → A combination of the two will happen. (homozygous)
Many genes may influence one trait or one gene influence multiple traits → Polygenic
inheritance.
Natural selection → advantageous traits give the individual to survive and reproduce.
Therefore, passing the genes
- A population must have variation in genes
- Individuals survive and reproduce more.
- Traits are passed over.
-
Evidence of evolution:
- Fossil evidence
- Has similar genomes
- Pseudogenes → inactive genes but could be used active long ago.
, - Distribution of species across continents
Note: Evolution doesn't improve the species, it creates species adapted to the environment
Nature (natural build/biology/genes) + nurture (environment, parenting, random events) →
shaped the organism
Lecture 2: The brain and nervous system
Genes and the environment interact to build a trait of an organism.
The nervous system consists of two systems.
- Central nervous system → brain & spinal cord
- Peripheral nervous system → Sympathetic & Parasympathetic Nervous system
The nervous system is made up of 2 basic cells
- Glia → support functions
- Neurons →
Basis of neuron
Dendrites → receive message.
Axon → passes the message away.
- Myelin sheath → covers the axon and helps with
the travel speed.
Terminal branches of axon → junctions (pass the
electrical signal) over to other cells. Synaptic ends
Communication among Neurons
Neuron Activated → Potential difference.
(amount of negative and positive particles are different in/outside of the neuron)
- -70 mV neuron inactive (resting potential)
- Stimuli and sodium channels open
- -55 mV Neuron fires (Threshold)
o More Na+
- 40 mV Na+ is getting stable
- Sodium (Na+) channel closes
- Potassium(K+) channels open
- Potassium helps the neuron to become
more negative again
- -90 mV neuron has more K+
- Potassium channel closes, K+ leaves.
- Neuron in rest-state
,Neurons fire or not
- Intensity various → number and frequency
Neurotransmitters
- Neurotransmitters are made in axons.
- Neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles.
- Vesicles fuse to the presynaptic and release their content
into the synapse.
- Neurotransmission is terminated by:
o Synaptic uptake
o Auto receptors
o Enzyme deactivation
- Neurotransmitters bind to the postsynaptic receptors.
o Can only bind with its particular receptor (lock and key model)
Neurotransmitters may lead to inhibition or activation of signals to different neurons.
- Excitatory signal
o Action potentials increase.
- Inhibitory signal
o Action potentials decreased.
Drugs can increase the release or decrease the release of neurotransmitters:
Agonists → increase.
- counteracting the cleanup
- blocking re-uptake
- Mimicking the neurotransmitters
Antagonists → decrease.
- Increase the effectiveness of cleanup.
- Enhance the re-uptake.
- Blocking receptors.
Communication of brain with the body
Central nervous system
- Brain
- Spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous system
- Somatic NS
o Sensory input
o Movement control
Autonomic Nervous system → Sending Signals from the brain to glands and internal organs.
, - Sympathetic Nervous system → prepares body for action
- Parasympathetic Nervous system → prepares body for resting
Endocrine system
- Several organs are called glans for hormone release/create.
o Slower process than neurons but lasts longer!
Hypothalamus → located in the brain and controls your endocrine system.
Methods to study the Brain
- Clinical Neuropsychology
o Compare an injured part of the brain to find which behaviour was changed
- Experiment
o Animals
Electrophysiology
o TMS → Transcranial Magnetic stimulation
▪ Electrical pulse influence the neurons → focused area ‘turned off’
o Electrophysiology (EEG and ERP)
▪ EEG → measured Electrical activities (channel 32,64,128)
▪ ERG → Event-related potential technique to see the reaction of the
brain (no longer then 500 milliseconds)
Brain imagining
o fMRI → 3D picture of brain activity
▪ more oxygen in that region
▪ Use of magnetic because red blood consist of iron and more oxygen is
more red blood cells
o Pet-scan → Positron emission tomography
▪ Injecting radioactive glucose
Parts of the brain:
Cerebellum → motor activity
Cortex:
- Frontal lobe → thinking and planning.
- Temporal lobe → hearing and memory.
- Parietal lobe → touch, spatial relations, and attention
- Occipital lobe → vision
Subcortical regions (below cortex)
- limbic system → motivation, memory, emotions, and reward
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