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Samenvatting Kwalitatieve Onderzoeksmethoden
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In this English (!) Summary I have included chapters 1 through 17 of the book Qualitative Research Methods by Maruster and Gijsenberg.
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KQUALITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODS
Laura Maruster & Maarten J. Gijsenberg
Rijksuniversiteit Groningen
Hoofdstuk 1-17
, QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
Chapter 1
Qualitative Research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a set of
interpretive, material practices that makes the world visible. By term we mean any type of research that
produces findings not arrived at by statistical procedures or other means of quantification.
Key elements:
▪ Aims which are directed at providing in-depth and interpreted understanding of the social world
of research participants by learning about their social and material circumstances, their
experiences, perspectives and histories.
▪ Samples that are small in scale and purposively selected on the basis of salient criteria.
▪ Data collection methods which usually involve close contact between the researcher and the
research participants, which are interactive and developmental and allow for emergent issues to
be explored.
▪ Data which are very detailed, information rich and extensive.
▪ Analysis which is open to emergent concepts and ideas and which may produce detailed
description and classification, identify patterns of association or develop typologies and
explanations.
▪ Outputs which tend to focus on the interpretation of social meaning through mapping and re-
presenting the social world of research participants.
Descartes wrote Discourse on Methodology in which he focused on the importance of objectivity and
evidence in the search for the truth. Key element was that researchers should attempt to distance
themselves from any influences that might corrupt their analytical capacity. Newton said knowledge could
only be reached by direct observation.
Positivism:
▪ The methods of the natural sciences are appropriate for the study of the social phenomenon
▪ Only those phenomena which are observable can be counted as knowledge
▪ Knowledge is developed inductively through the accumulation of verified facts
▪ Hypothesis are derived deductively from scientific theories to be tested empirically
▪ Observations are the final arbiter in theoretical disputes
▪ Facts and values are distinct, thus making it possible to conduct objective enquiry
Kant argues:
▪ Perception relates not only to the senses but to human interpretations of what our senses tell us
▪ Our knowledge of the world is based on ‘understanding’ which arises from thinking about what
happens to us, not just simply from having particular experiences
▪ Knowing and knowledge transcend basic empirical enquiry
▪ Distinctions exist between ‘scientific reason’ and ‘practical reason’
,By the 1970s, positivism itself and the legitimacy of social research based on the ‘scientific method’ began
to be debated. Particular concerns arose in relation to:
▪ Whether it is possible to control variables in experimental research involving human subjects to
achieve unambiguous results
▪ Whether the elimination of contextual variables in controlled experimental conditions is an
appropriate way to study human behavior
▪ Whether it is appropriate to disregard the meaning and purpose of behavior in controlled
experimental studies
▪ Whether overarching theories of the world and aggregated data have any relevance and
applicability to the lives of individuals
These challenges encouraged the use of qualitative research as a means of overcoming some of the
perceived limitations associated with the scientific method.
But new challenges arise too, in addition to criticisms of positivism. One such challenge has come from
postmodern critiques, such as poststructuralism and deconstruction which not only question the notion of
objectivity but also maintain that the concepts of meaning and reality are problematic. Another challenge
came from the Neo Marxism and subsequently, feminism, and race research which maintain that material
conditions, social, political, gender and cultural factors have a major influence on people’s lives. One of
the responses to these challenges, was a call for greater equality between the researcher and research
participants, a perspective particularly emphasized in feminist research.
Key philosophical and methodological issues
Ontology: these issues are concerned with beliefs about what there is to know about the world: whether
or not social reality exists independently of human conceptions and interpretations; whether there is a
common, shared, social reality or just multiple context-specific realities; and whether or not social
behavior is governed by laws that can be seen as immutable or generalizable. There are 3 positions:
▪ Realism: claims that there is an external reality which exists independently of people’s beliefs or
understanding about it. There is a distinction between the way the world is and the meaning and
interpretation of that world held by individuals.
▪ Materialism: claims that there is a real world but that only material features, such as economic
relations, or physical features of that world hold reality. Values are ‘epiphenomena’: features that
arise from the material world.
▪ Idealism: asserts that reality is only knowable through the human mind an through socially
constructed meanings.
An underlying ontological issue has concerned whether the social and natural worlds exist in similar ways
or whether the social world is very different because it is open to subjective interpretation.
Epistemology
, Epistemology is concerned with ways of knowing and learning about the social world and focuses on
questions such as: how can we know about reality and what is the basis of our knowledge? There are
three main issues around which there is debate in social research.
▪ Relationship between researcher and the researched: privileged (not objective), empathic
neutrality (recognizes that research cannot be value free but which advocates that researchers
should make their assumptions transparent)
▪ Theories about truth: similarities or differences between the natural and social worlds
▪ The way in which knowledge is acquired: through induction (looks for patterns and associations
derived from observations of the world), or deduction (generates propositions and hypotheses
theoretically through a logically derived process)
Pragmatism
According to this view, qualitative and quantitative research should not be seen as competing and
contradictory, but should instead be viewed as complementary strategies appropriate to different types
of research questions or issues.
Ontological position
According to this view, we adhere most closely to subtle realism. We accept that the social world does
exist independently of individual subjective understanding, but that it is only accessible to us via the
respondents’ interpretations. The diversity of perspectives adds richness to our understanding of the
various ways in which that reality has been experienced.
Epistemological position (or how it is possible to find out about the world)
A key feature is a striving to be as objective and neutral as possible in the collection, interpretation and
presentation of qualitative data. Reflexivity is important in striving for objectivity and neutrality.
Other tenets of the scientific method that we strive to achieve relate to reliability and validity. We accept
that differences in the nature of quantitative and qualitative data mean that these terms should not be
applied in a standard way to both types of research. Nevertheless, we believe that both are important
features of qualitative research, and attainable aspirations.
The approach embraces aspects of interpretivism (claims that natural science methods are not
appropriate for social investigation because the social world is not governed by regularities that hold law-
like properties) and pragmatism. The first is reflected in practices which emphasize the importance of
understanding people’s perspectives in the context of the conditions and circumstances of their lives. We
also see the researcher’s interpretations as very important, because these can be clearly delineated from
those of the participants.
Acknowledgement is also made of the importance of accessibility of research findings to research funders
and commissioners, and to those whose policies and practices it is intended to inform. This means that
our interpretation is grounded in the accounts of individual respondents, but employs language,
conceptualization and categorization that is not their own.
Lastly, we align ourselves with other pragmatists because we believe in the value of choosing the most
appropriate research method or methods to address specific research questions. We are interested in
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