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Summary - Animal Physiology (NWI-BB005C)
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This summary contains all the information of the lectures and tutorials of the course Animal Physiology (NWI-BB005C)
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Animal PhysiologyContents
Concepts and keywords..........................................................................................................................1
Osmosis, Osmoregulation and Excretion............................................................................................2
Digestion.............................................................................................................................................3
Introduction............................................................................................................................................5
Lecture 1 – Osmosis and Regulation.......................................................................................................6
Lecture 2 – Osmoregulation : The Kidney...............................................................................................9
Lecture 3 – Digestion............................................................................................................................19
Lecture 4 – Energy Homeostasis...........................................................................................................25
Tutorial 1 : The kidney..........................................................................................................................30
Tutorial 2 : Digestion............................................................................................................................32
CONCEPTS AND KEYWORDS
,OSMOSIS, OSMOREGULATION AND EXCRETION
Concepts :
- The exchange of water and ions between an animal and its surroundings relies mainly on
physico-chemical processes and membrane properties.
- Osmosis can be considered as diffusion of particles across a semipermeable membrane
- Key driving force of water transport across epithelia and plasma membranes is an osmotic
pressure difference.
- Tonicity always relates to the membrane properties of a cell.
- 2 strategies by which animals cope with osmotic challenge in their environment are;
osmoconformation and osmoregulation.
- The tolerance zone of excretory organs are, in general, focused on keeping the internal
environment constant (homeostasis).
- 3 basic processes are of key importance in urine production; ultrafiltration, reabsorption
and excretion.
- The functional unit of a vertebrate kidney is the nephron, which can be considered as a
tubular structure with local specializations.
- The loop of Henle, the collection tube and the countercurrent multiplication system enable
birds and mammals to produce concentrated urine.
- A kidney regulates its function party autonomously, but it is also targeted by osmoregulatory
hormones.
- The main end product of protein metabolism is ammonia (NH3) which is produced during
deamination of amino acids.
- The way an animal excretes its nitrogen-containing waste products (ammonia/urea/uric acid)
of protein metabolism depends on the amount of water it has at its disposal.
Keywords :
Osmoregulation Encompasses those processes that regulate water- and ion balance.
Osmolarity Total concentration of osmotically active particles per litre of water in
Osmoles.
Osmolality Osmoles per kg water.
Osmol Standard unit of osmotic pressure.
Tonicity Part of osmotic pressure caused by particles to which the cell membrane is
impermeable.
Isosmotic When 2 solutions exert a similar osmotic pressure / contain equal
concentrations of osmotically active particles.
Hyperregulator Keeps osmotic value of its ECF higher than environment.
Hypo regulator Keeps osmotic value of its ECF lower than its environment.
Osmoregulator Tightly regulate their body osmolarity, which always stays constant.
Osmoconformer Match their body osmolarity to their environment actively/passively.
Stenohaline Organism that cannot tolerate a wide fluctuation in salinity of water.
Euryhaline Organism that is able to adapt to wide range of salinities.
Obligatory osmotic In response to physical factors; no control
exchange
Regulated osmotic Physiologically controlled; aids in maintaining internal homeostasis.
exchange
Kidney Organ in abdomen that removes waste and extra water from the blood
and helps keep chemicals balanced in the body.
Ultrafiltration Removal of fluid
, Reabsorption Movement of water and solutes from the tubule back into plasma.
Excretion Urine production
Nephron Kidney’s functional unit
Glomerulus Tuft of capillaries that filters a protein-free plasma into the tubular
component.
Proximal tubule Uncontrolled reabsorption and secretion of selected substances.
Loop of Henle Establishes osmotic gradient in renal medulla that is important in the
kidney’s ability to produce urine of varying concentration.
Distal tubule + Variable, controlled reabsorption of Na+ and H2O and secretion of K+ and
collecting duct H+.
Countercurrent Na+K+-ATPase pumps Na+ from lumen of wide ascending limb into
multiplication interstitial space. lumen’s osmolarity in ascending limb decreases.
system Osmotic gradient emerges.
Water from descending limb flows out through osmosis. osmolarity in
lumen of descending limb rises.
Aldosterone Steroid hormone secreted by adrenal gland that regulate salt and water.
ADH/vasopressin Antidiuretic hormone
Renin Enzyme secreted by the kidney that regulated blood pressure
RAA-system Regulates sodium and water absorption
Juxtaglomerular Produces substances involved in the control of kidney function
apparatus
Macula densa Area of closely packed specialized cells lining the wall of the distal tubule.
Renal clearance A measure of kidney transport in units of volume of plasma per unit time.
Urea Nitrogenous end product of metabolic breakdown of proteins.
Protein metabolism Creation and breakdown of proteins and/into amino acids
Ammoniotelic Nitrogen excretion as ammonia
Ureotelic Nitrogen excretion from amino acids/pyrimidines as urea.
Uricotelic Nitrogen excretion from amino acids and purines as uric acid.
DIGESTION
Concepts :
- The digestive tract can be considered as a specialized tube with specialized glands.
- The organization of the digestive tract reflects species-specific adaptations to the natural
diet.
- The motility of the digestive tract is almost entirely regulated by the nervous system, largely
independent of the CNS.
- The exocrine secretion of (the glands in) the digestive tract are aqueous solutions of
electrolytes and organic compounds (enzymes, mucines).
- Fermentation encompasses the conversion of nutrients by microorganisms. This conversion
happens anaerobically which means that its final products still have a relatively high
nutritional value.
- Through fermentation and the symbiosis with microorganisms, a host animal gains access to
(mostly) vegetable nutrients for which the host is unable to produce digestive enzymes.
- Enterocytes are equipped with an extensive arsenal of transporter proteins to absorb
monosaccharides, amino acids, dipeptides and electrolytes.
- Fatty acids diffuse across the apical membrane of enterocytes in micelles, after which
resynthesis of fat molecules occur in the cell. These fat molecules are then transported to the
lymph vessels as so-called Chylomicrons.
, - The digestive tract is innervated extrinsically (by CNS) and intrinsically by the autonomic
nervous system.
- The intrinsic innervation of the digestive tract is organized as the enteric nervous system,
which makes up the third (besides sympathetic and parasympathetic) part of the autonomic
nervous system.
- The digestive tract is an endocrine organ system; the key intestinal hormones are gastrin,
secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK) and GIP.
Keywords :
Carnivory, Herbivory Carnivores : eat animal-based food under natural conditions.
and Omnivory Herbivory : eat plant-based food with relatively small amounts of easily
accessible nutrients and a lot of rough fibrous material.
Omnivory : eat both plant and animal-based food.
Pharynx Tube inside neck that starts behind the nose and connects to trachea and
esophagus
Oesophagus Muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach.
Stomach Muscular organ that digests food.
Small intestine : Organ in abdomen with highest cellular turnover.
duodenum, jejunum Duodenum : first part of small intestine
and ilium Jejunum : second part of small intestine
Ilium : last part of small intestine.
Appendix (caecum) Fermentative vessels in non-ruminants.
and large intestine Caecum : first part of large intestine.
(colon) Colon : longest part of large intestine. Removes water and some
nutrients/electrolytes from partially digested food.
Salivary glands Gland in mouth that produces saliva.
Liver Organ in upper abdomen that cleanses the blood and aids in digestion by
secreting bile.
Gall bladder Pear-shaped organ below the liver where bile is concentrated and stored.
pancreas Long, flat gland that lies behind the stomach that produces enzymes that
are released into the small intestine to help with digestion.
Enteric nervous Neurons in the wall of mammalian digestive tract. Comprised of myenteric
system plexus and submucous plexus.
Plexus myentericus Network of nerve fibers and ganglia between longitudinal and circular
muscle layers of the intestine.
Plexus submucosus Network of nerve fibers and ganglia in submucosa of intestinal wall.
Digestion Breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids into smaller compounds
by endogenous enzymes.
Absorption Uptake of nutrients.
Enterocyte Simple columnar epithelial cells which line the inner surface of the small
and large intestines.
Digestive enzymes Group of enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their
smaller molecules.
Pre-gastric The exothermic, anaerobic breakdown of organic substances in ruminants
fermentation by bacteria, protozoa and fungi in rumen
Post-gastric The exothermic, anaerobic breakdown of organic substances in non-
fermentation ruminants by bacteria, protozoa and fungi in caecum and large intestines.
Volatile fatty acids Products of fermentation
(Na+K+)-ATPase Actively pumps Na+ from cytoplasm using ATP.
SGLT1- transporters Transports glucose and galactose across luminal side of enterocytes, 1 st
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