Examine how psychological perspectives contribute to the understanding of human development
and behaviour.
A1- Principles of psychological perspectives as applied to the understanding of development and
behaviour.
Behavourist
The behaviourist perspective is based on behaviour that is learned through interaction within the
environment. These days behaviourist principles are used today to treat mental health challenges
such as ptsd or phobias. Positive reinforcement is used to teach and strengthen behaviours and
mostly occurs when the outcome becomes positive and will likely be repeated in the future, doing
this leads to a desired behaviour. An example of this is a parent complimenting a child when they are
doing good in school resulting in positive reinforcement from both parents and the teachers, this will
increase the chances the child of continuing this positive behaviour. Negative reinforcement is the
use of teaching certain behaviours but avoiding a negative behaviour outcome, negative
reinforcement is normally used to help children perform better outcome of the behaviour and
continue good behaviour patterns, this is also used for pets like cats and dogs when owners are
teaching them tricks. An example of negative reinforcement is if a child is displaying negative
behaviour the child will then have their toys taken away so that it will be less likely for the child to
show negative behaviour again, doing this overtime will increase the chances of the child to not
show negative behaviour.
Classical conditioning is described when two stimuli are connected to create a new response and
then whenever the two stimuli are linked it will be associated with the new response, an example of
this can be if a parent comes home wearing a baseball cap and takes their child to then park,
everytime the child sees the adult wearing the baseball cap, the child will always associate it with
going to the park. Operant conditioning is linked with classical conditioning as it occurs when
punishment or rewards is used to modify a behaviour, it works as if a certain behaviour is being
shown either negative or positive it can result in a reward or a punishment to modify the behaviour,
an example of this is if a child is presenting negative behaviour like throwing a tantrum, the parent
could them put the child in timeout for their behaviour, doing this will result in the child from doing
this behaviour as the child will always associate throwing tantrums with being put in time out. For
the positive aspect of operant conditioning is a child receiving praises from their teacher on their
report and the
Behaviourist learning theory, specifically operant conditioning, is a psychological theory that explains
how people learn by associating consequences with their behaviours. This theory was first
introduced by B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist. In operant conditioning, behaviour is
strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow it. If a behaviour is followed by a
positive consequence (such as a reward), it is more likely to be repeated in the future. Conversely, if
a behaviour is followed by a negative consequence (such as a punishment), it is less likely to be
repeated in the future.
Skinner identified several types of consequences, including positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Positive reinforcement involves providing a positive
,consequence (such as praise or a reward) to increase the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
Negative reinforcement involves removing a negative consequence (such as a loud noise) to increase
the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. Punishment involves providing a negative consequence
(such as a scolding or a penalty) to decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. Extinction
involves withholding a previously given reinforcement to decrease the likelihood of a behaviour
being repeated. Operant conditioning is often used in education, where teachers use rewards and
punishments to shape students' behaviours. It is also used in the workplace, where managers may
use rewards to increase productivity and punishments to decrease unwanted behaviors.However,
operant conditioning has been criticised for being too simplistic and not taking into account the
cognitive processes that are involved in learning. Some critics argue that behaviour is not simply a
response to stimuli, but rather a complex process that involves perception, interpretation, and
decision-making.
Behaviourist theory is a branch of psychology that focuses on observable behaviour and how it can
be shaped through learning. Two of the most well-known behaviourist theorists are Ivan Pavlov and
B.F. Skinner. Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who conducted research on dogs to study the
digestive system. During his experiments, he observed that the dogs began to salivate even before
they were given food. He later discovered that this response was due to a learned association
between the sound of a bell and the presentation of food. Pavlov referred to this learned response
as a conditioned reflex, and his research formed the basis for classical conditioning, which involves
learning associations between stimuli and responses. B.F. Skinner, on the other hand, was an
American psychologist who focused on operant conditioning. Skinner believed that behaviour is
shaped through rewards and punishments, and that behaviours that are reinforced are more likely
to be repeated. He introduced the concept of the Skinner box, which is an apparatus used to study
operant conditioning in animals. In a Skinner box, an animal learns to associate a specific behaviour
with a reward, such as food, water, or even access to a mate. Pavlov and Skinner both contributed to
the development of behaviourist theory, but they focused on different aspects of learning. Pavlov's
research focused on classical conditioning, while Skinner's research focused on operant conditioning.
Despite their differences, both Pavlov and Skinner believed that behaviour could be shaped through
experience and that learning plays an important role in behaviour.
Social learning theory.
Social learning theory is a psychological theory that explains how people learn new behaviours by
observing others and imitating their actions. The theory was developed by Albert Bandura, a
Canadian psychologist, in the 1960s.
According to social learning theory, people learn through a process called observational learning,
which involves four key steps: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. In the attention
phase, the learner must pay attention to the model's behaviour in order to learn from it. In the
retention phase, the learner must remember what was observed. In the reproduction phase, the
learner must be able to reproduce the behaviour. Finally, in the motivation phase, the learner must
be motivated to reproduce the behaviour, which can be influenced by rewards and punishments.
Social learning theory emphasises the importance of modelling, or the process of demonstrating a
behaviour for others to observe and imitate. Modelling can take place in various contexts, such as in
, families, schools, and the media. The theory also highlights the role of cognitive factors, such as
beliefs and attitudes, in shaping behaviour.
Social learning theory was developed by Albert Bandura, a Canadian psychologist, in the 1960s.
According to Bandura, learning occurs through a process of observation and imitation of others,
rather than solely through direct experience or reinforcement.
Bandura's social learning theory suggests that people can learn new behaviours and skills by
observing the actions of others, as well as the consequences of those actions. This process of
learning by observation is known as modelling. Bandura identified several key factors that influence
the extent to which modelling will be effective, including the characteristics of the model (such as
their status or similarity to the observer), the characteristics of the observer (such as their attention
and motivation), and the consequences of the modelled behaviour (such as whether it is rewarded
or punished). One of the key contributions of Bandura's social learning theory is the concept of self-
efficacy, which refers to an individual's belief in their ability to perform a specific task or behaviour.
According to Bandura, self-efficacy plays a critical role in learning and behaviour, as people are more
likely to engage in behaviours they believe they can successfully accomplish. Self-efficacy can be
influenced by a range of factors, including previous experiences, social support, and feedback from
others.
Although the concept of self-fulfilling prophecy is not a central aspect of social learning theory, it is
related to the theory's emphasis on the role of beliefs and attitudes in shaping behaviour.
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a phenomenon in which a belief or expectation about a person or group
leads to behaviours that fulfil that belief or expectation, regardless of whether it is accurate or not.
For example, if a teacher believes that a student is likely to perform poorly, they may unconsciously
treat the student differently, which in turn may cause the student to feel discouraged and perform
poorly. In the context of social learning theory, self-fulfilling prophecies can arise when people
observe and internalise beliefs and attitudes about themselves or others that influence their
behaviour.
Meditations l processes refer to the cognitive processes that occur between observing a behaviour
and imitating it, according to social learning theory. Meditation processes are a key component of
Albert Bandura's social learning theory, which suggests that individuals learn new behaviours by
observing and imitating others, and that cognitive factors such as beliefs and attitudes play a crucial
role in this learning process. Bandura identified four meditations, all processes that take place
between observing a behaviour and imitating it.
Psychodynamic
Psychodynamic learning theory is a psychological theory that emphasises the role of unconscious
processes in shaping behaviour and personality. The theory was developed by Sigmund Freud and
his followers, and it focuses on the inner workings of the mind, including the id, ego, and superego.
According to psychodynamic learning theory, human behaviour is driven by unconscious motives
and conflicts that are often rooted in childhood experiences. These motives and conflicts can
