Lecture summary Introduction to Psychological Theories (PSMIN11)
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Course
(PSB3EM22)
Institution
Rijksuniversiteit Groningen (RuG)
Summary of the psychology minor course ''Introduction to Psychological Theories (PSMIN11) on the RUG (November 2023). Contains sufficient lecture material to pass the exam. Short summary with all key aspects and examples. Example multiple choice exam questions included.
LECTURE 1 SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology → study of soul (from greek)
Humans are ‘intuitive psychologists’
Psychological science → study, through research, of mind, brain, and behavior
Aimed at understanding and predicting
• Behavior (actions)
• Mind (mental activity)
What is mind? Stuff of thought, mental activity, perceptual experiences (smell, sound etc), memories thoughts &
feelings
What is behavior? Totality of observable actions
Psychological science
Many levels at which you can study psychology
• Groups vs individuals
• Behavior vs brain activity
• Nature vs nurture
→ these are complementary, resulting in fascinating insights
History of psychology
Early roots:
Dualism (descartes → mind/body are separate and intertwined) à speaks of separation of mental life and body
Nature / nurture debate à about origin of mental life
Structuralism
Complex mental processes can be reduced to simpler processes (e.g., perception of orange reduced to color and
shape)
• Methods used: reaction times, introspection (try to recall own thoughts)
• Looks at building blocks and separate elements
Functionalism
Concerned with adaptive purpose/function of mind and behavior → mind is more complex than its elements
• We don't look at separate elements, but at the functions
First psychologists:
• Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) → prof physiology
• William James (1842-1910) → prof philosophy. First prof to welcome questions from students
First psychology labs from 1875/1878
James à ‘mind if more complex than its elements and therefore cannot be broken down’
- Noted that mind = stream of consciousness (ever-changing, continuous series of thoughts)
- à functionalism. Helps humans adapt to environmental demands
Evolution: focus on functions of behavior, ways our behavior helps us to survive and reproduce (Darwin)
• Genetic diversity → (mutation/variation), benefits of sexual reproduction
• Environmental pressures → evolution has no foresight
• Sexual selection: traits that aid in reproduction (eg bird songs/dance)
Psychology and evolution?
• Psychology = behavior and brain
• Evolution provides answer to ‘why’ questions Is there a function in mental disorders?
Psychoanalytical approach → mental processes operate below the level
of conscious awareness (ego, superego, ID)
• Unconscious drives
• Freud, psychoanalysis
• Influential outside of psychology
Behaviorism → building on work of Pavlov
PSMIN11 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 1
, • Only observable behavior can be subject of scientific investigation
• Psychology’s focus should be on how environment affects observable behavior (Watson, Skinner)
Gestalt → few basic principles guide visual perception
• Explain how visual input is grouped into a coherent whole
• ‘’The whole is bigger than the sum of its parts’’
Humanistic psychology → approach focusing on basic goodness in people, achieving goals, and fencing
fulfilment
• Positive psychology (values, creativity, quality relationship, gratitude, faith)
Cognitivism
Cognitive revolution
• Exploring mental process
• Influences by progress in computer science
Cognitive neuroscience
• We can infer how the mind works by looking at behavior
• Neuroimaging made the mind observable
Studying of ‘soul’
The scientific method
Based on experience, observation, existing theories, etc. come up with question and prediction → test that
prediction against real measurement from physical world → make conclusions with regard to your questions,
show support / lack of it for your prediction
Optimism bias: we tend to think we are better than others
• majority of drivers rated themselves as better than median driver
Availability heuristic
• If something is easier to bring to mind/imagine
• If we hear about something more often
We judge it as more probable
Birthday paradox
• Difficulty with exponential growth
• ‘Rare’ events given importance
• Self-identity
Importance of scientific method → our intuitions and perception can be biased. Bias occur bc we are motivated
to use our intelligence. We want to make sense of events that involve us / happen around us.
Critical thinking and psychology
• How to consume psychological science? With amiable skepticism (open-minded, curious, but still
skeptical)
Amiable skepticism = open to new ideas but carefully considering evidence
Contemporary psychology (what’s new in psychology)
Biology (evolution)
• Big data, computational modelling
• Culture
• Interdisciplinary influences (crossing levels of analysis)
Some biases: ignoring evidence, seeing causal relationships that do not exist, accepting after-the-fact
explanations (hindsight bias), taking mental shortcuts (e.g., availability heuristic)
Hypothesis generation: people are unaware of their weaknesses bc they cannot judge them (example with
student grades)
Replicability: likelihood that results of a study would be similar if ran again
Open science movement: social movement among scientists to improve methods, increase research
transparency and promote data sharing
PSMIN11 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 2
, Culture plays large role in shaping how people view and reason about the world around them
- Norms (how people should behave)
Biopsychosocial model
• biological level of analysis à how physical body contributes to mind and behavior
• individual level of analysis à focus on individual differences in personality and in
mental processes that affect how people perceive and know the world
• social level of analysis à how group contexts affect the ways people
interact/influence on each other
• extra: cultural level of analysis à how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are
similar or different across cultures
Q1: dr bakker wants to describe basic parts of conscious mind. Approach is similar to:
a. Structuralism
b. Cognitive psychology
c. Functionalism
d. Gestalt theory
Q2: todd says psychologists should instead study how stimuli in the environment make us behave the way we do.
Todds beliefs are most similar to:
a. cognitive psychology
b. Social psychology
c. Functionalism
d. Behavioralism
Q3: which approach to study risk-taking would an evolutionary psychologists most likely use
a. Examine people who have suffered damage to brain reas that ae thought to play a role in risk-taking
b. Explore forms and consequences of risk-taking to identify possible benefits for reproductive success
c. Identify how risk-taking behaviours that are effective in obtaining rewards may increase in frequency with experience, and how
ineffective behaviours may decrease
Q4: tim does not know personally anyone who has been in a car accident. When he is asked to estimate the
number of people who have been involved in traffic accident in NL, very few instances come to mind, so he
underestimates. … has influenced tim’s conclusion
a. Availability bias
b. Confirmation bias
c. Deterministic fallacy
PSMIN11 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 3
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