Summary/essay of endocrine aspects in humans. The overview includes Histology of the endocrine glands, histology of the sex-specific endocrine glands, mechanisms of hormone action, the hypothalamus-pituitary axis, hormones and reproduction, the thyroid gland and thyroid hormones, endocrinology of t...
,Table of Contents
1 Histology of the Endocrine Glands .................................................................................................. 7
1.1 Pituitary ................................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Adrenal Gland .......................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.1 Adrenal Hormones .......................................................................................................... 8
1.3 Thyroid Gland .......................................................................................................................... 8
1.4 Pancreas .................................................................................................................................. 9
2 Histology of the Sex-Specific Endocrine Glands ............................................................................ 10
2.1 Ovary ..................................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Testis...................................................................................................................................... 11
3 Mechanisms of Hormone Action ................................................................................................... 12
3.1 Signal molecules .................................................................................................................... 12
3.2 Glycogenesis .......................................................................................................................... 12
3.3 Signal transmission ................................................................................................................ 12
3.3.1 Responses: fast and slow............................................................................................... 13
3.4 Membrane receptors ............................................................................................................ 13
3.4.1 Second messengers ....................................................................................................... 13
3.4.2 G-Protein Transduction Systems ................................................................................... 13
4 The Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axis .................................................................................................. 14
5 Hormones and Reproduction ........................................................................................................ 15
5.1 Female Sex Hormones ........................................................................................................... 15
5.1.1 Cycle Irregularity............................................................................................................ 15
5.1.2 Hormonal contraception ............................................................................................... 16
5.2 Male Sex Hormones .............................................................................................................. 17
5.2.1 Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome ................................................................................. 17
5.2.2 Testosterone and DHT ................................................................................................... 17
5.2.3 Male infertility ............................................................................................................... 18
6 The Thyroid Gland and Thyroid Hormones ................................................................................... 19
6.1 Perchlorate Discharge Test.................................................................................................... 19
6.2 Deiodination and Transmembrane Transport ....................................................................... 19
6.3 T3 Receptors .......................................................................................................................... 20
6.4 Thyroid Disorders .................................................................................................................. 21
6.5 Iodine ..................................................................................................................................... 22
7 Endocrinology of the Adrenal Gland ............................................................................................. 23
7.1 The Stress Axis ....................................................................................................................... 23
7.1.1 Deficiencies.................................................................................................................... 23
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, 7.2 Steroids of the Adrenal Cortex – RAAS.................................................................................. 24
7.2.1 Deficiencies.................................................................................................................... 24
7.2.2 Aldosteronism ............................................................................................................... 25
7.2.3 Liddle’s syndrome.......................................................................................................... 26
8 Catecholamines of the Adrenal Medulla ....................................................................................... 27
8.1.1 Catecholamines Synthesis ............................................................................................. 27
8.1.2 Catecholamines Function and Signal Transduction....................................................... 27
8.1.3 Tumors ........................................................................................................................... 28
8.1.4 Conversion of Catecholamines Into Metanephrines ..................................................... 28
8.2 Adrenogenital Syndrome....................................................................................................... 28
9 Growth Hormone .......................................................................................................................... 31
9.1 GHRH, GH, IGF-1 .................................................................................................................... 31
9.2 GH-deficiencies...................................................................................................................... 32
9.3 Ghrelin and GHRH ................................................................................................................. 32
10 Endocrinology of the Pancreas .................................................................................................. 33
10.1 Normal Glucose Metabolism ................................................................................................. 33
10.2 The Incretin Effect ................................................................................................................. 34
10.3 Malfunctions.......................................................................................................................... 34
10.4 Diabetes ................................................................................................................................. 35
11 Calciotropic Hormones and Osteoporosis ................................................................................. 36
11.1 Calcium .................................................................................................................................. 36
11.1.1 Hypocalcemia ................................................................................................................ 36
11.1.2 Hypercalcemia ............................................................................................................... 36
11.2 PTH ........................................................................................................................................ 36
11.2.1 PTH Release ................................................................................................................... 37
11.2.2 PTH Targets.................................................................................................................... 37
11.3 Vitamin D ............................................................................................................................... 37
11.4 Calcitonin ............................................................................................................................... 38
11.5 Calcium Regulation ................................................................................................................ 38
11.5.1 Effects Calciotropic Hormones ...................................................................................... 38
11.6 Osteoporosis.......................................................................................................................... 39
12 Leptin and Obesity..................................................................................................................... 40
12.1 Energy homeostasis............................................................................................................... 40
12.2 Gastrointestinal hormones .................................................................................................... 40
12.3 Leptin ..................................................................................................................................... 41
12.4 Parabiosis............................................................................................................................... 41
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