Learning and Cognition Summary, Human Learning Literature + Lecture Summary (own grade 7)
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Course
Leren en cognitie (6472LCY)
Institution
Universiteit Leiden (UL)
Book
Human Learning, Global Edition
This summary includes both the literature for the entire book and the summary of all lectures. These are summarized weekly. All important people are additionally marked here.
Samenvatting boek Leren & Cognitie (VERVANGING VOOR HET BOEK)
Samenvatting Human Learning, Global Edition, ISBN: 9781292104386 Leren En Cognitie
Samenvatting Educational Psychology (boek Human Learning)
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Pedagogische Wetenschappen
Leren en cognitie (6472LCY)
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Week 1
• Leren: lange-termijn verandering in mentale representaties als gevolg van ervaring.
o Sommige wetenschappers willen een verschil in gedrag zien ipv mentale representatie
• Cognitie: een parapluterm waartoe mentale processen gerekend worden die optreden wanneer mensen
waarnemen, informatie verwerken, leren, denken en problemen oplossen.
• Ontwikkelingsperspectief: Hoe en wat er geleerd wordt is afhankelijk van de achtergrondkennis en
cognitieve vaardigheden van de persoon die leert.
• Basic research: investigate specific learning processes under tightly controlled conditions, often looking at
people´s responses to contrived learning experiences in a laboratory
• Applied research: investigate people's learning in more real-world tasks and settings
• Quantitative: measurements and other numbers
• Qualitative: complex verbal of behavioral performances that a researcher must closely inspect and then
judge for the presence or absence of a skill.
• Human learning can best be understood by studying it objectively and systematically through research.
• Principles of learning: identify certain factors that influence learning and describe the specific effects these
factors have (a reward consequence = reinforcement)
o What factors are important for learning
• Law: when a principle is observed and it stands the test of time (over and over again)
• Theories of learning: provide explanations about the underlying mechanism involved in learning
o Why factors are important for learning.
• Theories have several advantages over principles:
o They allow us to summarize the results of research studies and integrate principles of learning
o Theories provide starting points for conducting new research
o Theories help us make sense of and explain research findings
o By giving us ideas about the mechanism that underlie human learning and performance, they can
ultimately help us design instructional and therapeutic strategies and environments that facilitate
human learning and development to the greatest extent possible.
• Theories also have drawbacks:
o No single theory explains everything researchers have discovered about learning
▪ Theorists who adhere to a particular perspective are apt to either ignore or discredit
phenomena that don´t fit comfortably within it
o Theories affects new information that´s published, thereby biasing the knowledge we have about
learning.
• Learned helplessness: people who learn that they have no control over unpleasant or painful events in one
situation are unlikely, in later situations to try to escape/avoid aversive events even when that's possible.
Introductie leer theorieën:
• Vroege psychologie: ging over introspectie en zelf-observatie.
• Behavioristische model: het waarneembare gedrag dat objectief te meten is
• Cognitief model: denkprocessen en mentale processen systematisch in kaart te brengen
• Social cognitive theory: gaat over wisselwerking tussen persoon, omgeving en gedrag.
Theories of learning
• Introspection: the primary means of investigating learning and other psychological phenomena.
• Behaviorism: understand learning and behavior through an analysis of stimulus-response relationships
o Believed: learning can occur only when learners actually behave in some way
• Social learning theory: learn new behavior by watching and imitating what other people do (modeling)
• Gestalt psychologists: described a variety of intriguing findings related to mental phenomena as human
perception and problem solving
, • Cognitive psychology (cognitivism): with objective, scientific methods for studying a variety of mental
phenomena -> resulted to the social cognitive theory
• Cognitive neuroscience: discover how the brain influences people's behavior and learning, and how these
can influence brain development
Week 2 -> Behaviorism
Equipotentiality: human beings and other animals learn in similar ways
Neo behaviorists: also take factors within organisms into account on top of stimulus and responses
Determinists: if we have complete knowledge about an organism's inherited behaviors, we can predict the next
response in a situation
Parsimony: the simplest theory is the best one
Avoidance learning: process of learning to stay away from an aversive stimulus (need: pre-aversive stimulus)
• Active: deliberately make a response to avoid an aversive event.
• Passive: not behaving in a certain way allows you to avoid an aversive event.
Punishment: decreases the frequency of the response it follows
Group contingency: an entire group must perform a desired behavior in order for reinforcement to occur (ABA)
Token economy: individuals who behave appropriately are reinforced with token reinforcers that later can be traded
for backup reinforcers.
Schoolwide positive behavior support: support program in an effort to encourage produce behavior in all students
Formative assessment: ongoing assessment of student's progress (rubric)
Summative assessment: is conducted at the end of instruction to determine what students have learned
High stakes tests: summative tests that influence decision making about students matters.
Classical conditioning: two stimuli are presented about the same time, create an conditioned response
• Also called signal learning -> learning about associations
• The conditional stimulus serves a signal that the unconditioned stimuli is coming
• Elicits: an automatically response that you don't have in hand
• Associative bias: associations between certain kinds of stimuli are more likely to be made
• Contiguity: the potential conditioned stimulus must occur only when the unconditioned stimulus follows in a
short matter of time
• Extinction: conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus led to weaker (eventually) no
responses
• Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance of the response after id had previously been extinguished.
• Generalization: when learners respond to other stimuli in the same way as to a conditioned stimulus
• Stimulus discrimination: the opposite of generalization -> distinguish two different stimuli.
• Second order/ higher-order conditioning: Meat -> bell = response to bell bell -> light = response to light
• Counterconditioning: making a fear disappear by conditioning it with something pleasant (candy -> + rat))
• Systematic desensitization: uses counterconditioning to treat many conditioned anxiety responses
Operant conditioning: response that is followed by a reinforcer is strengthened and therefore more likely to occur
• Reinforcer: a stimulus that increases the frequency of a response it follows.
• Positive reinforcements: Social (smile), Material (toys), Activity (next level), Token (points) Positive feedback
• Negative reinforcements: take something good away (like a point)
• Superstitious behavior: learner thinks that response and reinforcement are related when in fact they aren't
(luck)
• Shaping: a process of gradually reinforcing closer approximations tot the behavior we ultimately want to see
• Chaining: learners can also acquire a sequence of responses through training (chickens learn baseball)
• Extinction: when a response decreases in frequency because it no longer leads to reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement: every response is reinforced
• Intermitted reinforcements: some instances of the desired response are reinforced, and some are not
, • Ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses
o Fixed ratio schedule: reinforcer is presented after a certain constant number of responses
o Variable ratio schedule: a changing number of responses (with a same average) (casino)
• Interval schedule: reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a time interval
o Fixed interval schedule: interval remains constant
o Variable interval schedule: length of time changes unpredictably
• Differential schedule of reinforcement: a specific number of responses occurring withing a specific time
interval leads to reinforcement -> When a particular rate of responding is desired
o Differential rate of high responding: reinforcement only when a specific high number of
responses
o Differential rate of low responding: reinforces the first after a certain length of time with few or
no responses (not the same as fixed interval)
• Stimulus control: when an organism is more likely to make a certain response in the presence of certain
stimuli
• Setting events: complex environmental conditions under which certain behaviors are most likely to occur
• Generalization: when a new stimulus is similar to a previous stimulus
• Stimulus discrimination: learning that a response will be reinforced in the presence of one stimulus but not
in the presence of another stimulus (learn not to generalize) (wearing a green or red hat)
• Behavioral momentum: learners are more likely to make desired responses if they are already making it
• Mastery learning: an approach to instruction in which students must learn the material in one lesson to a
high level of proficiency before proceeding to the subsequent lesson.
o Small units, logical sequence, completion of each unit, observable criterion and remedial activities.
Effective forms of punishment
• Verbal reprimands, Restitution, Time out, in house suspension, withdrawal of a previously earned reinforcer
Ineffective forms of punishment
• Physical punishment, psychological punishment (humiliation), Extra classwork, Missing recess
Misconceptions about reinforcement and punishment
• Reinforcement is bribery
• Reinforcement leads to dependence
• Reinforcing one student for being good, teaches others to be bad
• Punishment reduces self-esteem
• Eliminating a problem behavior doesn't eliminate the underlying cause of behavior.
Using reinforcement to increase productive behavior
• Specify desired behavior up front (terminal behavior)
• Identify consequences that are truly reinforcing for each learner
• Make sure that learners will gain more than they lose by changing their behavior
• Explicitly describe response-consequence
• Administer reinforcement consistently
• Gradually shape complex behaviors
• When giving reinforcement publicity, make sure all students have this opportunity
• Use objective criteria to monitor progress (begin with a baseline level)
• When terminal behavior is regulated, gradually wean learners off extrinsic reinforcers.
Strategies for decreasing undesirable behaviors
• Extinguish responses (don't go in on behavior)
• Reinforcing other behaviors
• Punishment (explain what behaviors and why, immediately, supportive, consistent, modify environment)
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