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Summary LAW OF DELICT PRIVATE DEFENCE
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ATTACK!PRIVATE!!DEFENCE!
!
!!!!
1. ATTACK%MUST%CONSIST%OF%HUMAN% 2. ATTACK%MUST%BE%WRONGFUL:! 3. ATTACK%MUST%HAVE%
ACT:! • Courts!have!recognised!defence!as!a! ALREADY%COMMENCED%OR%
• Act!normally!consists!of!positive! ground!of!justification!against!attacks! BE%IMMINENTLY%
conduct!–!in!exceptional! on!the!following:!life;!bodily!integrity;! THREATENING%BUT%MUST%
circumstances!can!an!omission!qualify! honour;!and!property!or!possessions! NOT%YET%HAVE%CEASED:!
as!an!attack!for!purpose!of!defence!i.e.! • !NOTE:!cannot!act!in!defence!against! • One!may!not!act!in!defence!
if!a!prisoner!whose!term!of! lawful!attack!i.e.!person!may!not!rely! against!someone!from!whom!
DEFENCE! imprisonment!has!expired!is!not!
released!and!assaults!the!guard!in!
on!defence!in!resisting!policeman!who!
is!in!the!process!of!arresting!him!
one!expects!an!attack!only!at!
some!time!in!the!future!–!in!this!
order!to!escape!–!he!acts!in!defence! legitimately!–!because!conduct!of! case!you!can!apply!for!an!
against!the!omission!(“!attack”)!of!the! policeman!is!lawful! interdict!prohibiting!
guard!who!refuses!to!release!him! • i.e.!where!2!people!are!involved!in! respondent!from!making!
• Aggression!by!animal!does!not!qualify! duel!to!which!they!have!both!agreed!–! expected!attack!
1. DEFENCE% as!an!attack!but!one!can!act!in!defence! no!question!of!defence!because!both! • Where!an!attack!is!imminently!
MUST%BE% against!person!who!uses!his!animal! parties!attack!each!other!lawfully! threatening!one!may!act!in!
DIRECTED% merely!as!an!instrument!of!attack!i.e.! • TEST!=!OBJECTIVE! defence!even!before!the!attack!
AGAINST%THE% someone!who!incites!his!dog!to!attack! • If!the!defending!person!subjectively! commences!with!intention!of!
AGRESSOR% another!–!here!the!act!of!defence!is! believes!that!he!is!in!danger!or!that! preventing!the!attack!from!
HIMSELF! directed!against!human!conduct! the!act!is!wrongful!but!in!reality!it!is! taking!place!
! ! not!–!his!defensive!action!does!not! • It!is!not!possible!to!act!in!
constitute!private!defence! defence!where!attack!has!
2. DEFENCE%MUST%BE%NECESSARY%TO%PROTECT% • Putative!(imagined)!defence!does!not! already!ceased!–!it!might!
THE%THREATENED%RIGHT:! constitute!private!defence! however!not!always!be!possible!
• If!interest!may!reasonably!be!protected!in!some! • An!objective!test!deals!with!the!facts! to!determine!precisely!when!an!
other!less!detrimental!way,!act!of!defendant!is! as!they!appear!ex!post!facto!and!not! attack!has!ceased.!
wrongful! with!person’s!subjective!impression! !
• act!of!defence!must!be!the!only!reasonable! of!events!
alternative!to!protect!the!threatened!interest! !
• Ex%parte%Die%Minister%van%Justice:%In%re%S%v%Wyk% 3. THE%ACT%OF%DEFENCE%MUST%NOT%BE%MORE%HARMFUL%THAN%IS%
1967%(1)%SA%488%(A)%! NECESSARY%TO%WARD%OFF%THE%ATTACK:!
• QUESTION:%%can!a!person!defend!himself!in! • Act!of!defence!must!be!reasonable!i.e.!the!means!used!by!defender!must!not!
circumstances!where!he!is!able!to!!protect!his! be!out!of!proportion!to!the!imminent!attack!
interests!by!taking!flight?! • Reasonableness!of!the!act!of!defence!must!be!judged!objectively,!taking!into!
• ANSWER:%!case!law!of!the!opinion!that!a!person! account!all!the!circumstances!of!the!case!–!there!should!be!reasonable!
must!flee!unless!flight!exposes!him!to!danger!such! measure!of!proportionality!between!attack!and!the!defending!act!–!different!
as!being!shot!in!the!back! factors!play!a!role!in!determining!reasonableness!of!act!of!defence!
• Not%possible%to%lay%down%hard%and%fast%rules%–% • Fact!that!attacker!is!acting!wrongfully!counts!in!favour!of!the!defender!if!the!
©!Alda!Vorster!
depends%on%the%circumstances%of%each%case.! !
defender!causes!greater!harm!to!the!attacker!than!the!harm!suffered!or! !
! would!have!suffered!
!
INTRODUCTION:!
• state!of!necessity!exists!when!defendant!!is!placed!in!such!a!position!by!superior!force!that!he!is!able!to!
! protect!his!interests!or!those!of!someone!else!by!reasonably!violating!the!interests!of!an!innocent!third!
party!i.e.!A!acts!out!of!necessity!when!he!breaks!Y’s!door!down!to!save!Z!from!burning!house.!!A!will!not!
NECESSITY!
be!liable!to!B!for!the!damage!to!the!door!because!breaking!the!door!was!lawful.!!Necessity!!justifies!A’s!
conduct!–!it!gives!A!the!power!to!break!the!door!and!simultaneously!restricts!B’s!right!to!the!door!
• In!Crown!Chickens!(Pty)!Ltd!t/a!Rocklands!Poultry!v!Rieck,!Nugent!JA!pointed!out!that!although!the!
! weight!of!academic!opinion!regards!necessity!as!a!ground!of!justification!!(that!cancels!the!wrongfulness!
of!conduct)!and!accordingly!regards!he!criterion!for!its!determination!as!an!objective!one,!the!
jurisprudential!niche!of!necessity!in!the!scheme!of!delictual!liability!has!never!been!authoritatively!
determined,!namely!whether!it!excludes!wrongfulness!or!whether!it!excludes!negligence.!
• Nugent!JA!regarded!both!wrongfulness!and!negligence!to!be!concerned!!with!whether!the!reasonable!
NECESSITY!AND!IMPOSSIBILITY! person!in!the!position!of!the!alleged!wrongdoer!would!have!acted!in!the!same!manner!–!this!is!incorrect!
• necessity!must!be!distinguished!from! as!wrongfulness!and!negligence!are!2!distinct!elements!of!delictual!liabilty!
impossibility!–!its!not!necessarily!a!ground!of! • The!correct!approach!would!be!to!determine!ex!post!facto!!whether!a!state!of!necessity,!judged!objectively!
justification!that!excludes!wrongfulness! with!reference!to!the!circumstances!that!were!really!present!and!the!consequences!that!really!ensued!
• The!enquiry!into!wrongfulness!is!an!afterdthe!–fact,!objective!assessment.!
• !impossibility!however!may!play!a!role!in!
• NOTE:!a!person!who!defends!himself!against!the!attack!of!an!animal!acts!out!of!necessity!and!not!self!
excluding!liability!when!applied!to!different! defence!because!an!animal!cannot!“act”!(wrongfully)!
elements!of!delict!i.e.!conduct;!wrongfulness;! • !not!possible!to!set!out!definite!rules!to!determine!whether!necessity!exists!
fault! !
Impossibility!and!wrongfulness!!
• where!impossibility!does!not!amount!to!an!absolute!physical!
impossibility,!it!may!exclude!wrongfulness!
Impossibility!and!conduct!! • Regal%v%African%Superslate!
• a!person!who!causes!harm! • FACTS:!!A!the!owner!of!piece!of!land!traversed!by!a!stream!requested! Impossibility!and!fault!
because!he!found!!it!absolutely! interdict!!forbidding!B,!owner!of!farm!bordering!stream!and!at!higher! • person!who!is!unable!to!control!his!
or!physically!impossible!to!act! point,!to!allow!loose!slate!to!wash!down!into!A’s!land!because!there!was! impulses!may!also!in!appropriate!
(i.e.!A!fails!to!go!to!work! danger!that!stones!could!cause!damage!to!A’s!property! circumstances!avoid!liability!on!basis!
because!B!locked!him!up!with! • COURT!HELD:!while!it!would!have!cost!B!approximately!R10!000!to!build! that!he!lacks!accountability!therefore!
result!of!loss!to!A’s!employer);! a!wall!to!prevent!the!slate!washing!down,!the!possible!damage!to!A’s!land! fault!element!absent!
or!to!act!in!a!different!manner! would!be!slight!under!!the!circumstances!B’s!failure!to!build!wall!was!not! !
(B!grabs!the!hand!of!the!weaker! wrongful!because!it!was!impossible!for!him!to!avert!the!threatening!
A!and!with!it!breaks!an! damage!
expensive!vase)!is!not!liable! • in!this!sense!impossibility!does!not!mean!physically!or!absolutely!
because!he!failed!to!act!–!here! impossible!(as!it!was!physically!possible!to!build!the!wall)!but!rather!
conduct!is!absent!therefore! “impossible”!according!to!the!legal!convictions!of!the!community!as!to!
question!of!wrongfulness!does! what!could!reasonably!be!expected!from!B!
not!arise!–!here!impossibility!!is! • To!determine!what!is!reasonably!possible,!the!interests!that!B!would!have!
a!circumstance!excluding! to!sacrifice!to!avert!danger!(R10!000)!are!weighed!against!A’s!interest!
conduct! that!would!probably!be!infringed!should!B!fail!to!act!(an!interest!in!his!
! property!not!being!slightly!damaged)!
• !in!accordance!with!general!test!of!wrongfulness!–!it!was!in!light!of!
©!Alda!Vorster! !
circumstances!“impossible”!to!build!wall!–!here!impossibility!is!grounds! !
of!justification!that!excludes!wrongfulness!
!
, 1.%%State%of%necessity%must%exist%or%be%imminent!
REQUIREMENTS!FOR!
• i.e.!must!not!have!terminated!or!be!expected!in!the!future!
! • Irrelevant!whether!state!of!necessity!caused!by!human!action,!animals,!
or!forces!of!nature!
• The!existence!of!state!of!necessity!is!considered!objectively%taking!!into!
NECESSITY! !
account!the!circumstances%which%actually%prevailed%and!the!
consequences%which%actually%ensued!
• Question%=%!whether!viewed!ex!post!facto!a!state!of!necessity!actually!
existed!not!whether!Defendant!believed!it!to!exist!–!putative!(imagined)!
necessity!is!not!necessity!(Crown%Chickens%(Pty)%Ltd%t/a%Rocklands%
Poultry%v%Rieck)!
S%v%Pretorius!
3.%%%%The%act%in%necessity%must%have%been% • FACTS:!appellant!was!found!guilty!of!exceeding!the!speed!limit,!
necessary%to%protect%the%threatened%interest! appellant’s!2!year!old!daughter!had!taken!number!of!pain!tablets.!
• The!Defendant!must!not!have!had!any!other! Appellant!believed!that!the!child's!life!was!in!danger!and!wanted!to!get!
reasonable!means!of!averting!the!danger.! the!child!to!a!hospital!as!quickly!as!possible!
• If!defendant!can!escape!from!the!emergency!by! • COURT!HELD:!on!appeal,!appellant!acted!out!of!necessity!and!set!
fleeing!!he!must!do!so! conviction!aside.!In!reality!no!necessity,!child’s!life!never!in!danger!–!
! fact!that!appellant!subjectively!believed!!state!of!necessity!existed!does!
not!mean!that!it!in!fact!existed.!Conviction!not!appropriate!as!no!fault!
4.%%The%means%used%for%averting%the%danger%must%not%have%been%excessive%but%reasonable%in%the% on!part!of!appellant.!!
circumstances%!
• The!fact!that!the!Defendant!is!in!a!state!of!terror!is!also!not!relevant!–!
• defendant!must!not!cause!more!harm!than!is!necessary!
although!terror!may!indicate!existence!of!a!state!of!necessity!–!the!fact!
• !in!contrast!with!private!defence!the!sodcalled!principle!of!proportionality!of!interests!applies!in!
case!of!necessity!(Maimela%v%Makhado%Municipality)! that!a!person!experiences!fear!does!not!necessarily!justify!the!
• Requirements!for!necessity!therefore!stricter!than!for!defence! conclusion!that!state!of!necessity!exists!–!fear!may!influence!
• !not!possible!to!lay!down!fixed!principles!to!determine!whether!protected!interest!is!more!valuable! Defendant’s!accountability!or!fault!but!not!wrongfulness!
or!less!valuable!than!the!interest!sacrificed!–!answer!depends!on!circumstances!of!each!case! !
• Following!from!this!is!the!difficult!question!of!whether!necessity!may!justify!homicide?!
• in!the!English!case!of!R%v%Dudley%%the!answer!was!no!–!the!killing!of!an!innocent!person!was! 2.%%A%legally%recognised%or%protected%interest%of%the%actor%or%
viewed!as!a!greater!evil!than!the!death!of!the!threatened!person!–!i.e.!individual!was!excepted!to! someone%else%must%have%been%endangered!
sacrifice!his!own!life!rather!than!kill!another!in!order!to!save!himself! • Defendant!need!not!only!protect!his!own!interests!buy!may!also!
• %but!in!S%v%Goliath%A.D.!held!that!homicide!may!be!justified!by!necessity! protect!interests!of!others!i.e.!A!protects!his!child!
R%v%Dudley%and%Stephens%! • Also!the!prejudiced!and!protected!party!may!be!same!person!
• FACTS:!2!people!had!been!adrift!on!a!small!boat!after!a!shipping!disaster.!They!had!been!convicted! i.e.!a!surgeon!who!carries!out!emergency!operation!on!patient(!
of!murder!after!they!had!cut!the!throat!and!eaten!the!weakest!of!passengers!in!order!to!stay!alive! patient’s!bodily!integrity!is!simultaneously!violated!and!
after!21!days!at!sea!and!8!without!food.!Court!rejected!plea!of!necessity!and!found!necessity!can! protected!by!surgeon)!
never!justify!killing!of!innocent!person!
• Not!only!life!or!physical!integrity!may!be!protected!out!of!
S%v%Goliath%1972%(3)%SA%1%(A)!
• FACTS:!A!under!compulsion!from!B!and!fearing!for!his!life!assisted!B!in!killing!C.!Court!had!to! necessity!–!any!interest!such!as!honour,!identity,!privacy,!
decide!whether!A’s!defence!of!necessity!could!be!upheld!–!meant!that!life!of!threatened!person!had! freedom!and!feelings!may!be!violated!in!state!of!necessity!
to!weighed!against!the!life!of!the!deceased! !
• COURT:!Rumpff!JA!held!d!…it!is!generally!accepted!…that!an!!ordinary!human!being!regards!his!
own!life!as!more!important!than!that!of!another!person…! NOTE%the%following%regarding%necessity:!
• it!is!clear!from!this!dictum!that!law!recognises!the!convictions!of!the!community!that!a!person’s! 1. Not!clear!whether!defendant!may!rely!on!necessity!which!he!created!–!there!is!authority!for!
own!life!is!more!important!to!him!than!the!life!of!another!! both!views!i.e.!a!state!of!necessity!created!by!the!defendant!excludes!necessity!and!the!view!that!
• The!majority!decision!therefore!supports!view!that!compulsion!(!a!form!of!necessity)!may!justify! a!person!may!rely!on!necessity!even!though!he!himself!created!the!state!of!necessity!–!has!most!
homicide!although!justification!will!depend!on!the!circumstances!!and!must!be!judged!carefully! support!
particularly!in!light!of!the!right!to!life!which!is!entrenched!in!the!Constitution!s11! 2. A!person!may!not!rely!on!necessity!where!he!is!legally!compelled!to!endure!the!danger!i.e.!a!
!
©!Alda!Vorster! ! !
landowner!may!not!alter!the!natural!flow!of!water!on!his!land!so!that!is!causes!damage!to!others!!
even!where!his!own!interests!are!threatened!by!flooded!waters!on!other!hand!it!has!been!held!!
that!a!landowner!may!drive!a!swarm!of!locusts!away!from!his!land!onto!his!neighbours!land!
!
! • where!a!person,!legally!capable!of!expressing!his!will,!gives!consent%to%injury%or%harm,!causing!of!such!harm!
will!be!lawful!
CONSENT!
• Consent!is!a!ground!of!justification:!person!suffering!harm!waives!his!right!to!the!extent!that!he!permits!
defendant%to%violate%his%interests.!–!with!result!that!actor!cannot!be!held!liable!for!damage!caused!
• Volenti%non%fit%iniuria%(a!willing!person!is!not!wronged;!he!who!consents!cannot!be!injured)!–!principle!that!a!
defendant!is!not!liable!where!the!!person!has!consented!to!injury!or!risk!thereof!
!
Consent!takes!2!forms:! !
! ! Volenti!non!fit!iniuria!(volenti)!is!used!as!a!common! Consent!to!injury!
!!! concept!to!describe!both!forms!of!consent! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!or!
Consent!to!the!risk!of!injury
The!expression:!‘Voluntary%assumption%of%risk’
Sometimes!used!to!imply!consent!to! Sometimes!to!refer!to!contributory!intent!
1. Consent!to!injury!–!injured!party! 2. Consent!to!risk%of%injury%–!injured!! risk!of!injury!(a!ground!of! (a!ground!excluding!fault!or!culpability)!
consents!to!specific%harm! party!consents!to!risk!of!harm! justification)!
− e.g.!A!consents!to!B’s!removing! caused!by!defendant’s!conduct!
Consent!excludes!wrongfulness! Contributory!intent!cancels!!defendant’s!
his!appendix! − e.g.!A!consents!to!risk!that!the!
negligence!
− C!consents!to!D’s!using!his!pen! operation,!performed!by!B!on!
− The!rugby!!propdforward!! him!may!have!a!certain!sided
consents!that!his!opponent!may! effect!
scrum!against!him! − A!participant!in!sport!consents! Both!forms!constitute!a!complete!defence!excluding!delictual!liability
− E!consents!to!his!barber,!F! to!the!risks!involved!in!such! However,!contributory!negligence!is!not!a!complete!!defence!–!claim!of!a!
cutting!his!hair.! sport! plaintiff!who!is!guilty!of!contributory!negligence!may,!however!be!reduced!by!
%%%%%%%%! − A!rugby!player!accepts!the!risk! court!in!accordance!with!degree!of!his!contributory!negligence
that!he!may!be!injured!in!a!
tackle!
− A!boxer!that!a!blow!may!
paralyse!him! Instead!of!worrying!about!terminology,!the!following!should!be!
ascertained:
− A!squash!player!that!his!
! Precisely!what!happened!in!a!particular%situation;!
opponent’s!racquet!may!hit!him!
against!the!head! ! Whether!wrongfulness%was%excluded!because!of!the!consent!of!
Should!risk!contained!in!operation!or! the!injured,!or!
sport!injuries!mentioned!above!in!fact! ! Whether!the!negligence!of!a!defendant!was!cancelled!by!plaintiff’s!
ensue,!injured!person!will%not%be%able% intention%(contributory%intent),!or!!
! Whether!although!the!plaintiff!neither!consented!nor!had!
to%hold%defendant%delictually%liable!
contributory!intent,!he!was!in!fact!contributory%negligent%in!
because!he!has!consented!to!risk!of!such!
respect!of!his!damage!because!he!acted!in!a!manner!different!
harm!
! from!what!a!reasonable!person!would!have!
©!Alda!Vorster! ! !
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