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Summary LAW OF DELICT CAUSATION
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CAUSATION)• A!causal)nexus)between!the!conduct!and!damage!is!required!for!a!delict!
! • A!person!cannot!be!held!liable!if!he!has!not!caused!any!damage.!!
!
!!! Often!expert!evidence!is!!decisive!(especially!that!of!doctors)!is!decisive!
• The!question!of!whether! • i.e.!In!Ocean)Accident)and)Guarantee)Corporation)Ltd)v)Koch)
! ! there!is!a!causal!nexus!in!a! 1963)4)SA)147)A)!the!court!had!to!decide!whether!the!defendant,!the!
particular!case!is)a) third!party!insurer!of!a!vehicle!with!which!the!driver!negligently!
question)of)fact)that!must! smashed!into!the!rear!of!the!plaintiff’s!vehicle,!could!be!held!liable!
always!be!answered!in! for!expenses!incurred!as!a!result!of!a!thrombosis!which!was!allegedly!
light!of!the!available! caused!by!a!persistent!state!of!anxiety,!allegedly!arising!as!a!result!of!
evidence!and!relevant! a!neck!injury!which!the!plaintiff!had!suffered!in!the!accident.!
probabilities!–!it!is!dealt! • Majority!of!the!court!held!on!appeal!that!on!the!medical!evidence!it!
with!first!in!the!course!of!a! was!impossible!to!say!that!the!eventual!thrombosis!was!a!result!of!
trial!as!far!as!causation!is! the!accident!
concerned! !
!
1.)FACTUAL)CAUSATION! 2.)LEGAL)CAUSATION!
• Whether!an!act!is!a!cause!is!established!by!conclusions! • All!legal!systems!limit!the!chain!of!consequences!which!an!act!
drawn!from!available!facts!and!relevant!probabilities! may!have!caused,!as!consequence!can!stretch!into!infinity!
• In!most!cases!that!occur!in!practice!there!is!no!problem!in! • The!question!of!legal!causation!arises!when!determining!
determining!in!one!way!or!another!whether!the!defendant’s! which!harmful!consequences!actually!caused!by!the!
conduct!has!causes!harm!to!the!plaintiff!or!not!–!courts! wrongdoer’s!wrongful,!culpable!act!he!should!be!held!liable!
usually!succeed!on!basis!of!evidence!and!probabilities!of! for!
given!cases,!whether!a!causal!link!exits!between!
wrongdoer’s!conduct!and!damage!
• In!practice!the!courts!use!the!condictio)sine)qua)non)!
!
©!Alda!Vorster! ! !
FACTUAL'CAUSATION
CONDICTIO)SINE)QUA)NON)AND)
CAUSATION)BY)POSITIVE)CONDUCT:)
!
• The!condictio!sine!qua!non!
theory!is!also!known!as!the!“but!
for”!test!
• Van!der!Merwe!and!Olivier! LOGICAL)CRITICISM)OF)THE)CONDICTIO)SINE)QUA)NON)THEORY:!
explain!it!as!follows:!according) • The!test!is!still!widely!used!but!is!subject!to!some!criticism:!
to)this,)an)act)is)the)cause)of)a) ! !
result)if)he)act)cannot)be)thought) !!!
away)without)the)result)
disappearing)simultaneously.)) a) The)test)is)based)on)a)clumsy,)indirect) b) The)test)fails)in)cases)of) c) The)test)is)an)ex)post)facto)justification)of)a)
The)act)must)in)other)words)be) process)of)thought)that)results)in)circular) cumulative)causation.! conclusion)already)reached.!
condictio)sine)qua)non)of)the) logic.) • This!test!fails!where!more! • Neethling!et!al!are!of!the!opinion!that!the!
result.! • Suppose!it!must!be!established!whether!X! than!one!event!was!a! condictio!sine!qua!non!is!really!not!a!test!of!
• i.e.!to!!determine!whether!X!was! caused!Y! cause!,!such!as!where! causation!but!an!ex!post!facto!expression!of!a!
a!cause!of!Y!–!one!must! o According!to!the!condictio!sine!qua!non!the! both!X!and!Y! predetermined!causal!nexus,!and!that!this!is!the!
eliminate!X!mentally!and! judge!must!eliminate!X!and!imagine!what! simultaneously,!but! most!important!reason!why!it!is!unacceptable.!
consider!whether!Y!still!exists! would!have!happened!without!X.!! independently!,!shot!Z.!!In! • Neethling!says!that!it!is!unclear!how,!by!
or!not.!!If!Y!falls!away!when!X!is! o Fact!that!judge!must!eliminate!X!from!his! this!case,!if!you!eliminate! eliminating!a!circumstance!in!the!mind,!one!can!
eliminated!=!X!is!the!cause!of!Y.!! mind!does!not!mean!that!he!must!think!of! X,!Z!still!dies!which,!on! establish!the!cause!
If!Y!still!exists!even!when!X!is! nothing,!for!if!he!were!to!do!that!he!would! the!condictio!sine!qua! • Neethling!says!the!following!example!explains!
eliminated,!Y!has!not!been! inevitably!have!to!find!that!Y!also!would!not! non!means!that!!didn’t! why!test!is!absurd:!
caused!by!X! have!arisen!because,!after!all,!nothing!cannot! cause!the!death;!same! • X)visits)Y,)planning)to)accuse)him)of)adultery)with)
• In!the!case!of!positive!conduct! cause!something! thing!if!you!eliminate!Y;!Y! his)(X’s))wife.))But)Y)is)friendly)and)gives)X)a)beer.))
(a!commission)!on!the!part!of! o Judge!must!eliminate!X!with!retention!of!all! didn’t!cause!the!death!as! A)few)minutes)after)drinking)the)beer,)X)has)
the!defendant,!the!conduct!must! other!antecedents!i.e.!with!retention!of!all! it!still!would!have! convulsions)and)dies.))How)could)the)condictio)
be!“removed”!in!the!mind!to! other!circumstances!which!accompanied!X! happened.!!! establish)whether)Y)caused)X’s)death)by)poisoning)
determine!whether!the!relevant! o Question!he!must!ask!is!whether!Y!would! • The!application!of!the! him?))Eliminating)the)beer)will)not)provide)the)
consequences!would!still!have! still!have!taken!place!if!these!antecedents! condictio!sine!qua!non! answer:)you)would)still)need)medical)evidence)to)
resulted! had!existed!without!X!–!he!must!in!fact! test!thus!permits!one!to! establish)whether)the)beer)or)a)heart)attack)
! search!for!a!different!possible!cause!of!Y! come!to!an!absurd! caused)the)death.))Only)when)you)have)established)
In)International)Shipping)Co)(Pty))Ltd)v)Bentley)
because!Y!did!in!fact!take!place!(for!sake!of! conclusion!that!neither!X! whether)he)died)of)a)heart)attack)or)not)could)you)
the!court!formulated!the!condictio!sine!qua!non! convenience!we!can!group!all!other! or!Y!has!in!fact!caused!Z’s! work)out)if)the)beer)was)a)condictio)sine)qua)non.))
approach!with!regard!!to!positive!conduct!as! antecedents!which!may!be!a!possible!cause! death.! That)is,)you)only)use)the)test)when)you)have)
follows:! or!causes!of!Y!as!Z)! ! already)had)the)answer.))Without)prior)knowledge)
“the)first)enquiry)is)a)factual)one)and)relates)to)the)
o Question!now!is!whether!Z!would!have! ! ! of)the)actual)cause,)the)test)is)useless.!
question)whether)the)defendant’s)wrongful)act)was)
a)cause)of)the)plaintiff's)loss.))This)has)been)referred) caused!Y!! • Condictio!sine!qua!non!is!merely!a!convenient!
to)as)“factual)causation”.))The)enquiry)is)generally) o How!can!it!be!determined!whether!or!not!Z! and!known!way!of!expressing!an!already!
conducted)by)applying)the)soLcalled)“but)for”)test,) caused!Y?!!If!condictio!test!also!applied!here,! determined!causal!link!
which)is)designed)to)determined)whether)a)
postulated)cause)can)be)identified)as)a)causa)sine)
it!means!that!Z!must!be!eliminated.!!In!such!a! • European!jurists!reject!the!condictio!as!a!test!of!
qua)non)of)the)loss)in)question.))In)order)to)apply) case!circle!has!been!completed!and!one!is! causation,!but!use!it!to!control!the!correctness!of!
this)test)one)must)make)a)hypothetical)enquiry)as)to) back!at!X!where!one!started! ones!conclusion!about!a!causal!link!
what)probably)would)have)happened)but)for)the) • It!is!argued!that!the!approach!is!indirect!an! • Neethling!et!al!say!that!the!courts!should!
wrongful)conduct)of)the)defendant…if)it)would)in)
• Characterising!the!test!
unsatisfactory!as!a!judge!is!not!able!to! as!the!condictio!is!just! acknowledge!!that!the!test!is!not!a!valid!test!of!
any)event)have)ensued,)then)the)wrongful)conduct)
was)not)a)cause)of)the)plaintiff’s)loss;)aliter,)if)it) establish!the!causal!potency!of!X!directly,!but! an!ex!post!facto! factual!causation.!
would)not)so)have)ensued.))If)the)wrongful)act)is) rather!has!to!ask!it!indirectly!by!asking! justification!of!a! • An!overview!of!case!law!shows!that!the!courts!
©!Alda!Vorster!
shown)in)this)way)not)to)be)a)causa)sine)qua)non)of) whether!the!other!antecedents!(Z)!had! ! !
usually!determine!a!factual!causal!link!correctly,!
the)loss)suffered,)then)no)legal)liability)can)arise!
conclusion!based!on!
caused!Y.! knowledge!and! in!light!of!!the!evidence!and!the!relevant!
!
! experience.! probabilities!of!how!one!act!follows!another!!
! !
, FACTUAL'CAUSATION
!
CONDICTIO'SINE'QUA'NON!AND$CAUSATION$BY$AN$OMISSION:)
• Generally!the!view!is!that!the!test!may!also!be!applied!when!trying!to!establish!whether!an!omission!caused!a!certain!consequence.!
• In!the!case!of!an!omission!a!hypothetical!positive!act!should!be!“inserted”!into!the!particular!set!of!facts,!which,!in!a!sense!amounts!to!the!mental!removal!of!the!defendant’s!omission.!!
If!the!hypothetical!positive!conduct!could!have!prevented!the!damage,!it!can!be!said!that!the!defendant’s!omission!was!the!cause!of!the!damage.!!!
• This!inquiry!requires!a!retrospective!analysis!of!what!would!probably!have!happened,!based!upon!the!evidence!and!what!could!have!been!expected!in!the!ordinary!course!of!human!
endeavor.!
• The!case!of!S)v)Van)As)1967)4)SA)594)A)is!a!good!example.!
• Facts:!policemen!neglected!to!search!for!children!who!had!fled!into!the!night!while!the!policemen!!were!effecting!an!arrest.!!The!children!where!thin!and!scantily!dressed.!The!next!
morning!2!of!the!5!children!were!found!to!have!died!of!exposure!
• Question)=)whether!the!children’!death!was!caused!by!the!omission!to!search!for!them.!
• From)the)judgment!it!appears!that!the!court!attempted!to!test!the!causal!connection!between!the!omission!and!the!death!by!asking!whether!reasonable!search!would!have!prevented!
the!children’s!death:!in!other!words,!the!court!positive!conduct!in!the!place!of!the!omission!
• This!is!viewed!as!an!application!of!the!condictio!sine!qua!non!by!our!courts!
• Court)held:)that!a!proper!search!would!not!have!led!to!the!finding!and!saving!of!the!children,!and!consequently!there!was!no!factual!link!between!the!failure!to!act!and!the!deaths.!
• INTERESTING)QUESTION)=)WHETHER)THE)HYPOTHETICAL)POSITIVE)CONDUCT)MUST)BE)DETERMINED)OBJECTIVELY)OR)SUBJECTIVELY??!
• In!other!words,!must!the!hypothetical!conduct!be!determined!according!to!what!a!reasonable!person!would!have!done,!or!what!the!relevant!person!(wrongdoer!or!defendant)!would!
have!done.!
• The!Constitutional!Court!in!Carmichele)v)Minister)of)Safety)and)Security)(Centre)for)Applied)Legal)Studies)Intervening))2001)4)SA)938)CC)preferred!an!objective!test,!but!
Harms)JA)in!the!SCA!Carmichele!decision:!Minister)of)Safety)and)Security))v)Carmichele)2004)3)SA)305)SCA!was!of!the!opinion!that!the!inquiry!should!contain!both!approaches.!
• According)to)Neethling)et)al:)“inserting”!reasonable!conduct!of!the!wrongdoer!into!a!set!of!facts!can!confuse!factual!causation!with!negligence.!!First!it!must!be!determined!whether!
the!wrongdoer!could!have!done!anything!to!prevent!the!relevant!consequence!(causation),!and!only!then!whether!the!reasonable!person!in!the!position!of!the!wrongdoer!would!have!
prevented!the!consequence!(negligence).!
• even!in!instances!of!causation!by!an!omission!the!condictio!sine!qua!non!test!also!does!not!really!offer!a!solution!
• The!apparent!success!in!using!the!test!in!the!case!of!an!omission!may!be!explained!by!means!of!the!fact!that!every!person!knows!that!he!can!prevent!certain!consequences!by!
interrupting!a!causal!chain!of!events.!!!
• i.e.!a!mother!knows!that!by!giving!her!child!food,!she!will!be!able!to!prevent!the!child!from!starving!to!death.!
• In!such!a!case,!a!hypothetical!act!is!notionally!inserted!into!all!the!facts!of!a!situation!and!it!is!usually!possible!to!picture!in!one’s!mind!what!the!hypothetical!course!of!events!would!
be.!
• But!a!true!application!of!the!condictio!requires!one!to!eliminate!something!from!the!mind,!not!to!inset!an!imagined!event.!
• The!argument!that!the!condictio!is!a!true!test!for!causation!in!cases!of!omission!is!therefore!theoretically!incorrect.!
• The!“inserting”!method!is!a!realistic!approach!and!more!logical!than!removing!an!event!according!to!Neethling!et!al!
!
!
!
©!Alda!Vorster! ! !
DETERMINATION)OF)A)FACTUAL)(CAUSAL))NEXUS:)
FACTUAL'CAUSATION
!
• If!the!condictio!test!cannot!function!as!a!valid!test!for!causation!on!the!grounds!of!logic!
and!comparative!law!–!QUESTION!=!what!test!should!be!used???!
• In!answering!–!first!step!is!to!have!clarity!on!what!factual!causation!is!
• Factual!causation!concerns!a!particular!kind!of!link!or!connection!between!at!least!2!
THE)FLEXIBLE)APPLICATION)OF)CONDICTIO)SINE)QUA)NON:) facts!or!sets!of!facts!i.e.!one!fact!arises!out!of!another!–!i.e.!if!fact!X!is!the!reason!why!
• In!Lee)v)Minister)of)Correctional)Services)2013)2)SA)144)CC)the!CC!said!that!the!strict! fact!Y!exists!in!a!particular!form,!or!has!come!into!existence!at!a!particular!time,!it!may!
application!of!the!condictio!sine!qua!non!would!sometimes!!result!in!an!injustice,!and!that! be!said!that!!X!is!the!factual!cause!of!Y!
a!flexible!approach!should!sometimes!be!taken.! • Due!to!the!complex!nature!of!reality!it!is!neither!possible,!nor!necessary,!to!find!a!
• court!held!that!a!flexible!approach!to!factual!causation!has!a!long!history!in!our!law,!that! general!test!to!determine!causation.!
causation!cannot!always!be!answered!strictly!logically,!and!that!common!sense! • Rather!what!is!necessary!is!to!indicate!on!what!grounds!a!conclusion!is!based!that!fact!
sometimes!has!to!prevail.! X!(act!of!the!wrongdoer)!caused!the!relevant!fact!Y!(damage!suffered!by!the!plaintiff)!
• Facts)of)case:)! • The!existence!of!a!factual!causal!chain!must!therefore!be!demonstrated!in!view!of!the!
• The!plaintiff!was!detained!in!a!maximum!security!prison!for!approximately!41/2!years! proven!relevant!facts!
• Whilst!incarcerated,!he!became!ill!and!was!diagnosed!as!suffering!from!pulmonary! • A!test!for!factual!causation!therefore!depends!on!the!facts!of!each!case!and!is!not!
tuberculosis!(TB).!!After!the!plaintiff’s!release!from!prison,!he!instituted!an!action!for! something!of!a!general!nature!that!can!be!applicable!to!all!factual!complexes!
damages!against!the!defendant!on!he!basis!that!the!defendant’s!servants!at!the!prison! • It!is!wrong!to!say!that!factual!causation!contains!normative!elements!–!whether!factual!
had!by!their!conduct!caused!him!to!become!infected!with!TB! causation!exists!or!not!is!a!question!of!fact!–!either!it!does!or!it!doesn’t!–!this!is!not!a!
• In!the!High!Court,!the!plaintiff!succeeded!with!his!claim! policy!matter!
• On!appeal!the!decision!of!the!High!Court!was!dismissed!because!the!plaintiff!could!not! • Legal!causation!on!the!other!hand!is!a!normative!enquiry!
prove!that!there!was!a!factual!causal!connection!between!the!prison!official’s!negligence! • Neethling!et!al!say!that!the!fact!that!there!have!been!so!few!problems!in!determining!
and!the!plaintiff’s!infection!with!TB! factual!causation!in!the!cases!means!that!there!is!no!need!for!an!allaencompassing!test!
• In!the!Constitutional!Court,!Nkabinde)J)held!in!her!majority!decision!that!factual! –!in!practice!the!courts!make!a!decision!based!on!facts!and!probabilities!and!it!works!
causation!was!present!and!the!plaintiff!succeeded!with!his!claim.! even!if!it!is!wrongly!named!the!condictio!
• In!Minister)of)Finance))v)Gore)2007)1)SA)111)SCA)the!court!stated:!“application)of)the) • Knowledge!and!experience,!together!with!evidence,!are!what!determine!the!causal!
‘but)for’)test)is)not)based)on)mathematics,)pure)science)or)philosophy.))It)is)a)matter)of) nexus.!–!knowledge!may!be!simple!common!sense!i.e.!a!lit!match!causes!a!fire)!or!
common)sense,)based)on)the)practical)way)in)which)the)ordinary)person’s)mind)works) require!expert!knowledge!i.e.!eating!cheese!when!taking!certain!medication!my!cause!a!
against)the)background)of)everydayLlife)experiences.”! stroke.!
• A!clear!example!of!where!strict!adherence!to!logic!fails!is!in!the!cases!of!cumulative! • Without!knowledge!that!a!certain!event!may!cause!a!certain!consequence,!it!is!
causation!–!here!the!commonasense!approach!of!the!man!in!the!street!provides!a! impossible!to!establish!whether!an!actual!event!caused!an!actual!consequence.!!The!
satisfactory!answer! circumstances!and!evidence!!of!the!case!will!show!the!causal!nexus!
• The!flexible!approach!to!factual!causation!is!supported!because!common!sense!rather! • The!law!approaches!causation!differently!from!how!scientists!do.!!
than!strict!logic!should!prevail!and!where!the!question!as!to!what!is!more!probable! • The!causes!of!a!certain!consequence!or!the!consequences!of!a!cause,!can!be!practically!
should!not!be!based!on!a!mathematical!thought!process!but!rather!as!Nugent!JA!has!put!it! unlimited!–!it!is!for!this!reason!that!the!law!does!not!merely!accept!liability!based!on!
“on)the)practical)way)in)which)the)ordinary)person’s)mind)works)against)the)background)of) the!factual!causing!of!a!harmful!consequence!and!uses!the!criteria!of!legal!causation!to!
everydayLlife)experiences.”! limit!liability!
• The!application!of!the!condictio!sine!qua!non,!even!in!its!flexible!form,!would!in!certain! • In!determining!factual!causation!in!a!case!of!omission,!the!court!must!in!general!
cases!lead!to!a!denial!of!liability!in!our!law!because!it!had!been!more!probable!than!not! determine!what!the!alleged!wrongdoer!could!have!done!in!the!circumstances!to!
that!the!defendants!did!not!cause!the!harmful!result! prevent!the!relevant!consequence!i.e.!would!the!opposition!of!bail!by!the!state!at!a!bail!
• This!consequence!may!be!unacceptable!in!certain!circumstances!as!justice!would!be! application!have!prevented!the!subsequent!assault!of!the!plaintiff!by!a!criminal!who!
denied! was!released!after!the!state!had!failed!to!oppose!bail!application.!!i.e.!2.!would!the!
• An!unfair!outcome!of!the!butafor!test!could!perhaps!be!circumvented!by!means!of!the! search!for!children!have!saved!their!lives??!
element!of!legal!causation,!where!the!basic!question!is!whether!there!was!a!sufficiently! • Only!if!the!defendant!could!in!the!circumstances!have!done!something!(in!the!form!of!
!
close!relationship!between!the!defendant’s!negligent!conduct!and!the!victim’s!damage! positive!conduct)!to!change!the!factual!cause!of!events!to!a!meaningful!extent,!do!the!
that!the!damage!should!be!attributed!!to!the!defendant! questions!concerning!a!legal!duty!and!reasonable!conduct!(wrongfulness!and!
• Taking!into!account!policy!considerations!based!on!fairness,!reasonableness!and!justice.! negligence)!arise!
©!Alda!Vorster!
• To!ascertain!whether!such!a!relationship!existed,!the!negligent!exposure!to!a!risk!of!harm! ! • Must!be!noted:!when!it!comes!to!factual!causation!it!is!unnecessary!that!the!conduct! !
may!play!a!significant!part.!! was!the!only!cause!or!the!main!cause!–!question!=!did!it!in!any!way!contribute!to!the!
! damage!
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