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Samenvatting Literatuur Perspectieven op Publieke VraagstukkenWeek 1
Head & Alford
Wicked Problems; implications for public policy and management
Government organizations are good at implementing policies and delivering services that are
relatively standardized, routine, and high volume. Most of the times they perform tasks with empathy
and responsiveness to the citizens they serve, but they seem to be less well equipped to respond
effectively to nonroutine and nonstandard service challenges.
Wicked problems: those that are complex, unpredictable, open ended, or intractable. Originally
defined as incomprehensible and resistant to solution. In this article a hopeful stance is adopted,
seeking to understand governmental factors that make them difficult for policy makers to address.
While conclusive solutions are very rare, it is possible to frame partial, provisional courses of action
against wicked problems.
Unforeseen consequences of policy intervention in areas of risk and uncertainty emerged in several
fields during the 1970s. Reflected widespread dissatisfaction with rational-technical approaches to
decision-making, planning, and implementation. Rational-technical approach assumes that efficient
and effective achievement of objectives can follow from adequate information, carefully specified
goals and targets, and choice of appropriate methods.
Critique on rational-technical decision making;
- Systems theory
Social and economic problems cannot be understood and addressed in isolation. Every
problem interacts with other problems and is therefore part of a system of interrelated
problems.
- Major social issues are grounded in value perspectives
Gathering more information for scientific analysis is insufficient to understand and resolve
major problems. Database for rational planning could not supplant the rich experiential
knowledge of professionals concerned to enhance the quality of human services. Technical
rationality could not come to grips with the professional norms and practical knowledge of
those who provide valued services to individual clients experiencing real problems and not
comprehend experiences of diverse citizens who are supposed to be helped by these
interventions and the values underlying their needs and desires. Grounded in competing
value frameworks rather than gaps in scientific knowledge.
- Days of solving major problems through an engineering approach have ended (Rittel &
Webber)
Modern society was now seen as a pluralistic rather than homogeneous, and not amenable
to top-down general solutions. Social groups increasingly exhibit important differences in
aspirations, values, and perspectives that confound the possibility of clear and agreed
solutions. Modern problems of social or policy planning are different from technical puzzles
“tame”: elements of the puzzle are definable, and solutions are verifiable.
Modern social problems are generally ill defined and rely on political judgments rather than
scientific certitudes “wicked”.
10 primary characteristics of wicked problems (Rittel & Webber)
1. There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem.
2. Wicked problems have no “stopping rule” (i.e., no definitive solution).
3. Solutions to wicked problems are not true or false, but good or bad.
4. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem.
5. Every (attempted) solution to a wicked problem is a “one-shot operation”; the results cannot
be readily undone, and there is no opportunity to learn by trial and error.
, 6. Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively describable) set of potential
solutions, nor is there a well-described set of permissible operations that may be
incorporated into the plan.
7. Every wicked problem is essentially unique.
8. Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another problem.
9. The existence of a discrepancy representing a wicked problem can be explained in numerous
ways.
10. The planner has no “right to be wrong” (i.e., there is no public tolerance of experiments that
fail).
Challenges of wicked problems
The challenges for contemporary governance and policy making are linked in part to ongoing debates
around the proper role and scope of government. Greater use of market mechanisms vs. large
initiatives (even though such interventions might be based on imperfect knowledge, and the desired
outcomes could take many years to emerge).
Concerns have also arisen in relation to dealing with disasters and crises of various kinds that throw
into relief the (in-)capacity of governmental systems to prepare, coordinate and rapidly mobilize
resources. Kettl: nontraditional/ adaptive/ networked strategies to address nonroutine problems
new types of policy response. In addition, literature suggests that many problems are marked by
deep-rooted disagreement about the nature and significance of particular problems and possible
solutions. The diverse sources of policy divergence on complex value-laden issues underline the point
that there is no “root cause” of complexity, diversity, uncertainty and ambiguity and hence there is no
root cause of wickedness and no single best approach to tackling such problems. Problem definitions
tend to imply a preferred solution; insufficient knowledge = further research, stakeholder
disagreement = reducing conflict through dialogue.
Wicked problems are generally seen as associated with social pluralism, institutional complexity and
scientific uncertainty. It is no bad thing that every solution for dealing with a wicked problem is open
to further interrogation and adaptation. Important learning and evaluation processes emerge from
the adaptive management experience of working at multiple levels with a range of policy
instruments.
Complexity, diversity and uncertainty
It is useful to identity a spectrum of problem types to help explain the features typical of wicked
problems generally and throw light on the differential features and intensities of different problems.
Typology of different problem situations, ranked in order of difficulty (Heifetz):
- Type 1 (tame): both the definition of the problem and the likely solution are clear to the
decision maker
Require technical work on the part of decision makers and those subject to their decisions.
- Type 2: the definition of the problem is clear, but the solution is not
Learning and discussion are required by both the governmental managers and the
stakeholders they lead.
- Type 3 (wicked): both the problem definition and the solutions are unclear
More extensive learning and discussions are required for all concerned.
Tame problems are those currently regarded as capable of standard or routine solutions. Low levels
of complexity and disputation and thus low perceived levels of uncertainty.
Policy literature suggests that what counts as a problem and what counts as a solution are heavily
shaped by institutional history and stakeholder perspectives.
In a world of constrained or “bounded” rationality, lack of consensus reflects differences in values and
experience; appeals to scientific expertise will seldom generate acceptable solutions.
,There are not only cognitive-analytical challenges but also communicative, political, and institutional
challenges to building a more shared understanding.
In general, the more complex and diverse the situation, the more wicked the problem. Complexity
and diversity create higher levels of uncertainty or ambiguity.
Pragmatic approach: type of response is tailored to the types of wickedness the problem seems to
exhibit. Don’t solve a wicked problem but help stakeholders negotiate shared understanding and
shared meaning about the problem and its possible solutions. Objective of the work is coherent
action, not final solution.
Public managements shortcomings in dealing with wicked problems
Mechanisms of public-sector management tend to complicate and hamstring efforts to resolve
complex issues. Structures have evolved over time, with each new phase overlaying rather than
completely eliminating its predecessor manifested characteristic approaches to the key
management functions of deciding what to do & exhibited its own typical cultural norms.
Traditional hierarchical forms of public administration have not been conducive to grappling
productively with wicked problems. Hierarchical forms of organization and systems of control,
focused on input monitoring and process compliance, substantially limited the opportunities to think
expansively about policy issues of the type that might be thrown up by wicked problems.
New Public Management (NPM, managerialism) practices have generally been ill-suited to dealing
with wicked problems managing for results, monitoring performance outcomes. Rational-technical
approach to making decision, adopting corporate strategy methods from private sector. This model
assumes that each public organization has settled goals, a supportive political environment, and
control over the resources and capabilities necessary to deliver on the goals, none of which
necessarily apply in the presence of wicked problems. Also the structures and processes through
which managerialism implements decisions limits the capacity to grapple with wicked problems.
Corporate management framework tends to solute from each other those programs that may actually
have connections in respect of certain wicked problems.
Intensified by contractualism in 3 ways:
- Contract based service delivery models tend to shift the focus back along the program logic
chain from outcomes to outputs.
prescribing a particular output as the means for achieving an outcome tends to limit the
scope for imagining other means for doing so
- Contractualism entailed separating service-delivery functions from those devoted to
formulating policy, deciding what services were needed, and arranging with providers to
deliver them.
fragmenting knowledge and understanding about factors that might cause/influence
wicked problems
- Contractualism entailed the establishment of competition between service providers.
undermining cooperation among those who might collectively have significant information
or insights relating to wicked problems
Strategies for dealing with wicked problems
Most widespread strategy is some form of collaborative or networked management, wherein
managers work across boundaries with others who have relevant knowledge and a stake in the
complex issue hey are grappling with. Requires other measures, collaboration alone does not
necessarily address all aspects of the complexity challenges.
2 further approaches:
- Broader ways of thinking about variables, options, and linkages
- New models of leadership that better appreciate the distributed nature of information,
interests, and power
, Broader ways of thinking about the variables, options and linkages
Taking a broad contextual approach allows greater room to discover alternative means of solving
problems. 3 aspects of this style of thinking;
- Frame reflection
There are endemic problems in social policy that are not amenable to definitive solution
either by authoritative determination or through appeals to scientific knowledge. Grounded
in different frames and value perspectives rather than in disagreements about scientifically
verified knowledge. Alternative approach is to construct a metaframe that builds on the
conflicting frames of reference deployed by key actors.
- Systems thinking
Attempts to overcome the mechanistic and linear metaphors of command-and-control that
tend to be common in organizations, taking instead a more holistic and interactive approach
to causes and impacts. Social knowledge is provisional and context dependent, consideration
of desired outcomes and complex web of inputs, processes and outputs that lead to these
outcomes.
- Complexity theory
Used to highlight some of the chaotic and contradictory aspects of policy interventions in
complex settings. Key ideas from complexity science (interdependence, feedback loops,
emergent features, surprises) have been adopted to explain ecological processes and the
impacts of human interventions. Aid the analysis of complex trends and challenges rather
than to demonstrate more effective solutions.
Collaboration and cooperation
Cooperative approaches are likely to be central instruments in addressing complex problems.
Collaborative working may include greater or lesser degrees of either voluntarism or formal
contractual partnering. It entails at least some degree of shared understanding, agreed purposes,
mutual trust, and usually an element of interdependence. Potentially a virtuous circle enable more
successful collaboration but they are reinforced by the resultant cooperation.
The presence of collaborative relationships is likely to enhance the understanding and addressing of
wicked problems where there are multiple parties with differential knowledge/ interests/ values/.
Can help in addressing wicked problems in 3 ways:
- Presence of functioning cooperative networks increases the likelihood that the nature of the
problem and its underlying causes can be better, if not entirely understood
- Collaboration increases the likelihood that provisional solutions to the problem can be found
and agreed upon, not only because a wider network offers more insights but also because
greater cooperation improves the prospect that diverse parties may reach an understanding
about what to do ( pooled knowledge and joint problem solving)
- Facilitates the implementation of solutions, not only because the parties are more likely to
have agreed on the next steps but also because it potentially enables shared contributions,
coordinated actions, and mutual adjustments among them as problems arise in putting the
agreed solution into practice, enhanced by bestowing autonomy and hence flexibility on
organizational representatives
2 other characteristics of collaborative arrangements
- Regular communication
- Trust and mutual commitment
New leadership roles
If its effective it can be seen as bestowing a degree of coherence and mindfulness, if not control.
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