Theme 1: Nature of Government
Autocracy: the Tsars
Dictatorship: Lenin
Totalitarianism: Stalin
De- Stalinisaton: Khrushchev
Marxism is the opposite of Capitalism
Under Lenin, it was Leninism-Marxism
Lenin adapted Marxism slightly diferently
AUTOCRACY DICTATORSHIP TOTALITARIANISM DE-STALINISATION
Tsar had absolute power and The Russian concept derived Fiercely centralised form of Noton that their should be
ordained by God, all Russians from the writngs of Karl Marx government that controlled collectve leadership, in the hands
obeyed the will of the tsar. and Friedrich Engels. A dictator every aspect of people’s of numerous individuals
Did not have to be of the proletariat where behaviour
accountable to people in politcal control was placed
electons with the workers and those
representng their interests
Only tenable way of ruling a Proposed that professionals Highly personalised leadership Authoritarian rule remained, one
vast empire, democracy could govern in the interests of under total control of one party, one leader but relaxed use
would have meant majority the workers untl they were person, no infghtng or internal of repression
rule by a group who lacked ready to take control disagreements allowed
‘the ability to reason’ themselves
Power used diferently Politcal ideology and policies Politcal ideology and policies Politcal ideology and policies were
according to their difering were adjusted to reduce were fxed according to the one changed to show a clear break and
circumstances, but politcal, internal or external oppositon, leader and ruler severance from the past
economic and social reforms but with no relinquishing of
were never made with the power or control
intenton of the ruler
relinquishing any degree of
control
When reforms were enacted, Placatng or appeasing Propaganda and the cult of Release of politcal prisoners,
it was clear ultmate power oppositon did not always personality used to instl relaxaton of censorship, erosion of
and control as sanctoned by resolve or dissolve it absolute compliance and the cult of personality
God rested in the hands of obedience to the ruler
the ruler
Ruling relied on loyalty but Ruling relied on the loyalty of Use of severe repression and A move away from rule based on
linked to religious adherence members of the party, but also terror to ensure obedience extreme repression
to orthodoxy seen as a moral some use of repression
judge as God’s representatve
on earth, and a paternalistc
duty to protect his subjects
Oppositon was seen as Oppositon were seen as Oppositon were seen as Oppositon internally was
disloyal to the tsar bourgeois and class enemies bourgeois and class enemies dismissed and externally put down
with force of violence
, Theme 1: Nature of Government
SimilaritiesiisIdiologiie Examplie? DifiriiciesiisIdiologiie Examplie?s
Belief in the need for Autocracy Justfcaton for rule Tsar: God
absolute control Dictatorship
Totalitarianism Communists: nature of the
proletariat and historical inevitability
Personalised power Autocracy Views on human nature Tsar: not weaknesses inherent
Dictatorship
Totalitarianism Communists: determined by social
class and therefore environment
The use of repression to Autocracy Views on reform Tsar: not welcome as they led to
maintain control Dictatorship challenges to government
Totalitarianism
Communists: not welcomed as they
maintained the bourgeois system
The use of reform to Autocracy Views on oppositon Tsar: threat because of diluton of
maintain control Dictatorship power
Totalitarianism
Communists: threat because
parliaments were bourgeois
Reluctance to allowed Autocracy Views on leadership The Tsar was in total control and
openness and greater Dictatorship never thought he should give his
freedoms Totalitarianism power up.
Marxism believed in democracy and
that the rule should not be
permanent; however, that never
occurred.
Autocracys1855-1917
Tear Autocratc? Notsautocratc?
He adhered very strongly to the concept of autocracy and was He showed a tendency towards being a reformer:
a controlling and repressive as any Tsar that preceded or Emancipaton of the Serfs 1861.
followed him.
AlixaidirsII He allowed schools, which were not run by the
Although he Emancipated the Serfs, it happens on his terms state.
and he keeps a hierarchical society, in which the nobles are
stll on top. Serfs had to pay redempton payments. Military reforms to assist in professional army
atmosphere.
Totally believed in “autocracy, orthodoxy and natonalism”:
Pobedonostsev tutored his son, Alexander III. Freedoms of speech and just before assassinaton
hr was going to introduce frst natonal
Trial of 50 afer assassinaton atempts, increased repression. democratc assemblies.
Got rid of reforming ministers, leading to fewer reforms.
Use of military strength to put down dissents and any
disloyalty to autocracy.
Private schools maintained class diferences ie. they were not
available to the peasants, who made up 89% of the Russian
populaton.
Afer his father’s associaton, he felt even more obliged to Peasant land banks contnued social reform of
secure total power and control. Alexander II, so arguably he was also supportng
AlixaidirsIII the power shif away from the nobles – but
Limited power to the Zemstvos limited. The peasants no longer need to rent land
Land Captains used to control populaton from the nobles.
, Theme 1: Nature of Government
Ruthlessly suppressed oppositon especially the People’s Will
Russifcaton, ant-Sematc pogrom
Claimed that his father died partly because of the ‘liberal’
Russian society
Pobedonostsev and him believed that the “people” did not
have mental atributes to make democracy work, only the
aristocracy could make the correct decisions
Contnued the same vein as his father. Pobedonostsev was Allowed the Duma to be set up 1905; however,
also his tutor. by 1917 there has been four Dumas and the last
NicholaesII one was chosen by the Tsar – he was guilty of
Fundamental Laws 1905: although the Duma was in place, the nepotsm.
main power was stll with the Tsar.
He get rid of redempton payments.
Similarly, retred some ‘liberal’ laws to preserve the autocracy.
The Okhrana and the military put down any dissents very
aggressively.
Took personal control of the army.
Bloody Sunday 1905 (beginning of 1905 Revolutonn: 200,000
want to present a petton to the Tsar; however, the Tsar gets
his troops to shoot them instead of acceptng the petton.
Howsfarsdidsthisformsofsgovirimiitsetaysthiseamisorschaigi?s
Changes:
Emancipaton of the Serfs 1861
o Economic or societal change
Introducton of the Duma is 1905
o More of a politcal change
However, these changes were watered down over tme and were limited.
Similarites:
All of them believed in the ideology of autocracy
Some of them reacted diferently to oppositon – only non-autocratc moments
o Eg. Nicholas II created the Duma afer the 1905 Revoluton
Always had a trigger
Dictatorehips1917-1953
Marxiems(KarlsMarx) Marxiem-Liiiiiem Marxiem-Liiiiiem- Di-Staliiieatoi
Staliiiem
Idiasofseupiretructuri Marx believe that an elite At frst, Lenin supported Stalin believed that Khrushchev believed that
–showswaeseociity maintained foundaton of the proletariat, which society could only be the people would
etructurid? society and the base of demanded higher wages; changed by welcome a less repressive
, Theme 1: Nature of Government
society benefted the elite however, when that was implementng a certain government so afer the
to the detriment of others. used to organize strikes. type of ‘superstructure’. Twenteth Party Congress
He strongly believed that he began de-Stalinisaton.
the ‘superstructure’ would He eradicated the cult of
always prevail to keep the personality. He released
workers in their place. politcal prisoners and
Lenin did not aim to get renamed the town, which
concessions with the Stalin named afer himself.
capitalist system, but
instead thought it was
more ratonal to
overthrow the existng
government by atacking
the ‘base’.
Laboursthiorysofsvalui Marx adapted a ‘labour Lenin replaced the War Implemented command Khrushchev wanted to
–sthishowsehouldsthi theory of value’, which Communism with the NEP economy centred on the establish a beter
icoiomysbisrui? means that under (New Economic Policyn. Five Year Plans and relatonship with the West
capitalism, the proletariat The NEP was associated collectvisaton. and co-exist peacefully.
would never be property with being more liberal However, overall there
be rewarded for their and giving the peasants an were no economic
eforts. Marx predicted opportunity to produce reforms.
that the workers would goods and service them
realize that they are being without restrictons.
exploited and this would
result in a revoluton.
Dictatorehipsofsthi Due to class confict, Lenin believed that the Stalin believed that the There was an idea of a
prolitariats–swhoswae revoluton would occur ‘superstructure’ needs to ‘superstructure’ had to collectve leadership,
iischargi? and workers would seize remain in charge in order be highly personalised which meant that the
control of means of to govern the foundaton and under the control of power would be placed in
producton, distributon appropriately. He stepped one individual. This the hands of a collecton
and exchange. But, short- away from Marx’s idea of would prevent damaging of individuals.
term there would need to a temporary government, infghtng. The
be an intellectual elite in which would then allow oppositon would be
charge – dictatorship of the proletariat to govern called the bourgeois and
the proletariat – dictated itself. would be dealt with
to before they could quickly. The use of
dictate how. propaganda, which
would be centred on
Stalin’s cult of
personality, would
reinforce the ideology.
Problimeswithsthie USSR wasn’t industrialised Lenin had adapt his Some believe that There were strikes for
idiologysiisthisUSSR enough for Marxist theory. ideology to ensure above Stalin’s ideology and the even greater reforms and
atsthistmi all else, he maintained his implementaton of the more freedoms –
Populaton was not control and dictatorship. Five Year Plans and especially in Eastern
educated. The oppositon to collectvisaton Europe, which was under
Communist ideology practcally helped the the Soviet sphere of
Ruling elite would need to resulted in a Russian Civil Soviet Union. Others infuence.
be willing to give up War, where the Reds and argue that Stalin
power. the Whites challenged manipulated Marxism-
each other. Lenin saw this Leninist to serve his own
as an opportunity to megalomania. Lastly,
eradicate the bourgeoisie. some believe that Stalin
contnued the work of
Lenin, who in his made
the most important
reforms.
, Theme 1: Nature of Government
Howsdidsthiseyetimsofsgovirimiitschaigisbitwiiis1855-1917?
How did the Tsar rule and how did it change afer the 1905 Revolutonn
The Tsar remained an autocrat; however, the Council of Ministers had a Prime Minister, who was
selected by the Tsar and it consisted of the ministers who were part of the Commitee of Ministers
and it could decide what the two lower houses should discuss and debate. . The State Council, which
was previously the Imperial Council of State, were in charge of checking on the Dumas. The Tsar
nominated the members of the State Council under the old system. Nicholas II introduced the Duma
in 1905 afer the Revoluton and it was an assembly of people elected by the Electoral College
system; it was not given the authority to pass laws. The Duma did not represent all the social classes
equally. The Senate remained the same and it was mostly in charge of issuing the Fundamental
Laws.
For a law to become legitmate it has to go through the Duma, the State Council, the Council of
Ministers and the Tsar. However, under the Fundamental Laws the Tsar could individually pass a law
when the Duma was in session.
Siidesofschaigi:sthisDumaes
Progriee/chaigi Coitiuity/lac sofsprogriees
FiretsDuma Debated about the ‘Polish Queston’ However, the government made a statement that
The most important debate was over land compulsory redistributon of land was not an opton
distributon The Duma was angered and turned to the press
Whilst the Duma was in session afer the Tsar Nicholas II claimed that the actons of the frst
dismissed it, a new approach to dealing with Duma were illegal and disbanded it afer 2 months
dissidents was adopted – the punishment was more
ruthless
SicoidsDuma Was heavily infuenced by Stolypin’s policies and
that made it less representatve of the people
The Tsar and Stolypin contnued to mistrust the
Duma and framed them for atempted to
encourage mutny in the army
The Tsar dismissed the second Duma shortly afer
that
ThirdsDuma Major reforms took place, which strengthened the Was mainly made up of people loyal to the Crown
army and navy Rich landowners in the countryside and in the cites
The judicial system was further improved with the Several non-Russian parts of the empire were under
reinstatement of justces of the peace and the represented or lacked a representatve in general
aboliton of land captains
State run insurance schemes were introduced for
workers for the frst tme
o All of this occurred because Nicholas II and
his ministers showed more trust in the lower
chambers
Despite Stolypin trying to trying to destabilise the
Duma by trying to create a greater bias towards
autocracy, the third Duma served its full turn in ofce
FourthsDumas Put pressure on the Tsar to abdicate Once again dominated by politcians from the far
The members formed a backbone for the Provisional right
Government Its rule coincided with brutal repression of civil
It was clear that the Duma played an important role disorder, such as when state police killed striking
in instgatng politcal, economic and social changes miners in 1912
, Theme 1: Nature of Government
benefcial to many sectors of Russian society Stll remained an insttuton of the ‘old-guard’
However, it is argues that the Dumas and Council of
Ministers made very litle diference to the
underlying nature of the Russian state
Duma politcians on the lef were largely ignored by
the government and the majority of the lower
chambers remained loyal to the principle of
autocracy
HowsfarsdidsthisBolehivi esrivolutoiieisthiswaysRueeiaswaesgoviriid?s
WayesthisBolehivi esrivolutoiieidsgovirimiits(chaigi) Wayesthiysdidi’tsrivolutoiieisgovirimiits(coitiuity)s
The Decree on Land sanctoned the requisiton of private land Having failed to get a majority in the Consttuent Assembly
by peasants electons, Lenin had the CA shut down afer just one day –
Issued a Decree on Peace, which called for immediate trice similar to the Tsar and the Dumas
and a peaceful setlement – presented the Treaty of Brest- Lenin positoned himself as head
Litovsk It introduced policies similar to those of the Tsarist era, ofen
New structure of government: in a very repressive form.
o The All-Russian Congress of Soviets and the Central Terror was stll widely used in this reign; this was used against
Executve Commitee – were meant to be the main class enemies although it was also directed against elements
aspects of the new government. within the party.
o Commissars were answerable to the Executve Only Soviets could divide and redistribute land
Commitee although the reality was diferent No expansion of freedoms like under PG
o The Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkomn – Use of Cheka to remove oppositon to one-party state.
consisted as ‘people’s commissars’ (ministersn who Expulsion of other groups/politcal partes.
had specifc governmental responsibilites.
o There was the Cheka
The government was democratc; the people at the botom
would pick representatves for the town Soviets who would
pick the district soviets who would pick the provincial soviets.
The Sovnarkom were the product of a chain of electons.
At local level the party consisted of cells whose members
would organise meetngs. Cell members were elected to town
or district commitees.
Commitees provided representatves to the annual party
congress.
It was an authoritarian nature of bolshevism
In theory, should be more democratc as elected
representatves, but soon all electons were of Bolsheviks
(loyalty to the partyn.
Stalii’esNaturisofsGovirimiit:s
Stalin was a dictator
o He gave the diferent organizatons ordered
o People would elect individuals to run the various aspects of government
o It allowed people to vote and it can be argued that Russia was a democratc in 1936
However, the communist party was the main party; therefore, if you were not part of the
communist party you did not have the right to vote.
Stalin went back to the Bolshevik structures such as the Politburo
o He flled the Politburo with his loyal supporters
, Theme 1: Nature of Government
o Politburo had infuence over the NKVD
WayesStaliisrivolutoiieidsgovirimiit:s WayesStaliisdidsiotsrivolutoiieisgovirimiit:
Republics in the USSR allowed elements of sovereignty such as These governments were stll answerable to the
own government and natonal fagss Sovnarkom
Creaton of soviet of natonalites- appeared to allow greater Government stll incredibly hierarchical
representaton of the interests on natonalites. Government became more centralised
Howsfarsdidslocalsgovirimiitschaigisacroeesthispiriod?
Orgaiieatois Rolisaidspowirs
ZimetvoesaidsDumaes The Zemstvo was introduced in 1864 by The Zemstva were regional councils
Alexander II and it In 1870 an urban equivalent was introduced
An elected membership was voted in by a o The Duma
mixture of landowners, urban dwellers and The entry qualifcaton to this body was even
peasants tougher than for the Zemstva, and this excluded
Electors were selected mainly by property the urban proletariat
qualifcaton
Zemstva were only located in areas
considered to be part of Great Russia
ThisThirdsElimiits By the end of the 19th century the Zemstva Before 1917 the Zemstva and Duma fourished
was dominated by teachers, lawyers and o Provided important service to the feld
doctors of educaton, public health and
The other members of the Third Element transport
were: Central government found the Zemstva
o Those employed in the members increasingly irritatng
‘administraton’ (governmentn By the end of the 19th century, the councils in
o Those who ‘represented the social some provinces were dominated by teachers,
estates’ (nobilityn lawyers and doctors who demanded that central
government should be remodelled on the lines
of the Zemstva and Duma
o This liberal voice was called the Third
Element
Soviites First emerged in St Petersburg at the tme Aim was to coordinate strikes and protect
of the October Manifesto factory workers
SRs and SDs looked to gain representaton SRs and SDs wanted to infuence how the
on the executve commitee council was run
1917: the council was ofcially referred to at the
Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ Deputes
o The Bolsheviks began to dominate the
executve commitee
Some historians claim that from March to
October 1917 the Petrograd Soviet ruled Russia
o It dictated when, where and how
strikes would occur
o Essental services, especially those
connected with transport, were largely
in the hands of the Soviet
Petrograd Soviet Order No. 1 placed ultmate
authority over soldiers in the hands of the Soviet
, Theme 1: Nature of Government
Judicialschaigies Contnuing on main changes: Was an important organ of government
o 1881: Alexander III moved away Despite the reforms the Russian legal system
from the ‘liberal’ approach to law remain archaic compared with that of the West
and order that had been adopted The main charges:
by his father. The police were o 1864: legal reforms: the introducton of
centralised under the ministers of a jury system for criminal cases; the
the interior, special courts were creaton of a hierarchy of courts to
designed for politcal cases and cater for diferent types of cases; beter
justce of the peace were replaced pay for judges, which lessened the
by land captains chance of corrupton; public
o 1917 onwards: the period of atendance at the courts was allowed
communist rule was dominated o 1877: following an assassinaton
by the idea of ‘revolutonary atempt on Alexander II, a new
justce’. This was epitomised by department of the senate was set up to
the new criminal code of 1921 try politcal cases. The Vera Zasulich
that legalised the use of terror to case and the eventual murder of the
deter crime (that is, all ant- Tsar in 1881 indicated that the new
revolutonary behaviourn. The policies of the senate had failed
whole justce system rested on
this principle to the end of the
period in queston.
Mirs Previously was a bridge between the Afer the emancipaton, the nobility no longer
people and the government played a politcal role
The local nobility were in charge of the mir The management of local afairs was lef in the
and ran it hands of local police constables appointed by
This changed afer the Emancipaton of the the interior ministry
Serfs
HowsdidsRueeiaisruliresdialswithsoppoeitoi?s
Efectveness of each method and justfy which method was most efectve
Link efectve methods together across the tme period and develop analysis of
reasons/efectveness of methods
Methods of control 1855-1964: which method was favoured and used the most by which ruler?
i. Army
ii. Secret police: Okhrana, Cheka, NKVD
iii. Censorship
Restricton of educaton
No freedom of speech
No foreign ideas and ideologies
iv. Propaganda
Spread of ideas, which a deliberate idea of infuencing the way people think
v. Terror/purges
vi. Banning of other politcal partes
Mithode AlixaidirsII AlixaidirsIII NicholaesII Liiii Stalii Khruehchivs
Polici Alexander II Utlised the Used Okhrana as well. December 1917: In 1934 the NKVD was Aimed to reshape
inherited the Okhrana as a Okhrana actvity Bolsheviks formed. It created a the security
Third Secton of tool for spying increased as the SRs established the permanent form of services. In March
the Imperial on, arrestng, and SDs actvity Cheka. Their specifc terror. It was crucial to 1954, the MVD was
Chancellery. imprisoning became more role involved dealing the impositon of reorganized into
However, he and/or exiling prominent. Members with counter- purges and was notable two departments.
, Theme 1: Nature of Government
replaced it with oppositon. of the Okhrana were revolutonaries. By for gathering evidence One was the refned
the Okhrana, used as agent the summer of 1917, against high-ranking version of the MVD,
which was provocateurs and they had begun to communists. The NKVD which was
‘sofer’. executoners clamp down on lef also helped to responsible for
However, afer his wing SRs, especially administrate the dealing with
abdicaton, the afer members of this Gulags; over 40 million ‘ordinary’ criminal
Provisional group were linked people were sent to acts and civil order.
Government with an atempt to these prison camps The other service
dismissed the assassinate Lenin in during the Stalinist was the KGB, which
Okhrana. August 1918. regime. was to focus on the
internal and
The Cheka difered Stalin suspected the external security of
from previous NKVD of conspiracy. the USSR.
variants of the secret The NKVD itself has
police since they used been purged of around The MVD and KGB
terror to victmise 20,000 members. were placed under
people based on who the direct
they were and not In 1943 the NKVD was administraton of
just because of their replaced by the NKGB the party rather
actons. and in 1946 by the than an individual,
MGB and the MVD. The and it became
Formed the Red MGB was responsible much easier to
Terror. Part of this for ensuring that the monitor security
involved enforcing general populaton was measures.
War Communism, the kept in line. The MVD The new structures,
‘Labour Code’, the was really another coupled with the
eliminaton of kulaks, version of the NKVD. In genuine desire to
the administraton of 1953, these move away from
labour camps and the organizatons were the severe
militarisaton of merged to form a large repression of the
labour. version of the MVD. Stalinist era, had a
notceable impact
In 1924, Lenin on Russian society;
replaced the Cheka the number of
with the OGPU, which politcal arrests
was less brutal than plummeted; the use
the Cheka; however, of Gulags largely
it stll inspired dear in disappeared; and
the public. torture of
dissidents appeared
to be a thing of the
part.
Army Uses the Russifcaton Used the army to put Lenin and Trotsky Stalin furthered the use By the tme
Cossacks. The under down any strikes or encourages soldiers, of the army helped Khrushchev came
army isn’t as good Alexander III dissents. The army especially in implement economic to power, the army
and is ted up in led to the dealt with the social Petrograd to form the policy. The Red Army was far more
the Crimean War army having unrest of February Military was again required to focused on
(1853-6n. an enhanced 1917 forcefully. Revolutonary requisiton grain, this resolving
role as a However, the army Commitee (MCRn, tme as part of internatonal
The Cossacks put peace- showed the will to which was to become collectvisaton. It also conficts. With
down countryside keeping force join the protestors. the vanguard of the helped to administer détente, an easing
dissents and regulator revoluton. the purges, and played of tensions
of regional During the October a role in the Great occurred, which in
fronters. Revoluton, the MRC Terror. turn led to a
Sometmes and the Red Guards reducton in the
the army’s seized power from Stalin consistently size of the army
use of Kerensky. perceived the military from 3.6 million to
excessive leadership as a threat. about 2.4 million.
force – such Once the Bolsheviks He therefore removed
as on Bloody took control, they a number of key Stll used army in
Sunday, 1905. deployed the military military fgures in the the Hungarian
to consolidate power. Great Purge (1936-8n. Uprising 1956, to
Troops were used to By the end of the put down
, Theme 1: Nature of Government
deal with fash strikes purges, over 40% of the discontent.
by civil servants and top echelon of the
fnancial workers. military had Warfare changed
disappeared. This because there are
The Red Army helped seemed illogical given nuclear weapons.
the Bolsheviks win rising internatonal
the Civil War. At the tension following the
start of the war, the Nazi seizure of power
Red Army barely and Hitler’s
existed, but by the expansionist foreign
end, it consisted of policy.
over 5 million
conscripts. The army Soviet army was
was used along with successful in WWII.
the Cheka to impose
War Communism.
Despite creatng a
more disciplined
army, Trotsky faced
problems of deserton
and rebellion. The
most notable
example was in
February 1921 when
sailors mutnied at
Kronstadt. Trotsky
sent the army to deal
with the sailors.
Ciieoreh Russia Clampdown Reverted to glasnost. One of the frst Under Stalin, Under Khrushchev
ips experienced on A considerable measures afer censorship was censorship was
glasnost for the publicatons. expansion of the seizing power was to increased. By 1932, all eased. Books and
frst tme Ofcials press took place in abolished press literary group were libraries
(opennessn. In censored 1894, and the freedom in order to closed down and proliferated so that
1865, censorship writen number of diferent suppress ‘counter- anyone wantng to by the late 1950s
was relaxed, material periodicals in revolutonaries’. In write had to join the nearly 65,000 books
although the before it was circulaton increased 1921, the Agitaton Union of Soviet Writers. were being
government published, three-fold from 1900 and Propaganda Members had to published per year,
retained the right and closed to 1914. Department was produce material under twice the number
to withdraw down certain Prepublicaton founded with the aim the banner of ‘socialist that came out in
publicatons of a newspapers, censorship once more of promotng an realism’. Any work had the mid-1920s.
‘dangerous journals and disappeared, idealised nature of to be approved by the
orientaton’. educatonal although publishers Russian life. Schools, party. By 1959 there were
insttutons. could stll be fnes or cinemas, the radio 135,000 libraries
The government closed down for and libraries were all High level of censorship containing around
published circulatng subversive under surveillance to contnued throughout 800 million books.
newspapers material. prevent the WWII.
(Ruskiin that Censorship was very disseminaton of Newspapers also
provided actve during WWI. counter-revolutonary fourished, with a
informaton on material. total readership of
ofcial items. This nearly 60 million by
resulted in an Writers who the early 1960s.
increase in the supported the new
circulaton of regime fourished.
newspapers,
periodicals and
books.
Propaga Propaganda was Propaganda Propaganda was used Bolsheviks were using Stalin promoted the Khrushchev gave
idas used to promote was used to to promote the slogans to cult of personality too. greater freedom to
the Romanovs promote the Romanovs through communicate their Eg: Stalin remained the cinema industry
through Romanovs pamphleteering, message to the Tsaritsyn to Stalingrad, afer his de-
pamphleteering, through portraits, populaton, such as slogan “Stalin is the Stalinisaton
portraits, pamphleteeri photographs and “Peace, Bread and Lenin of today”. Various speech. In 1959,
