This summary contains all the information of the weekly readings needed for the Arguing exam, part of the course Reasoning & arguing. This way, you won't waste too much of your time on the readings. It's for the course Reasoning and Arguing, from the first-year course of Ba Philosophy and for the c...
Summary Reasoning & Arguing, part of Arguing
Week 1 (arguing)
Snoeck chapter 1
Essentials:
- A standpoint can be positive or negative
- A difference of opinion arises when one party’s standpoint meets with doubt from
the other party = an elementary difference of opinion = single and nonmixed
- Difference of opinion is mixed: the other party is not only doubtful but also adopts an
opposing standpoint
- An analysis of argumentation must begin by identifying the main difference of
opinion, and what type of difference of opinion it is
1.1 discussion and disagreement
- to resolve the difference of opinion, they need to discuss the matter and try to reach
some kind of agreement.
- Argumentation/argument = a verbal, social, and rational activity aimed at convincing
a reasonable critic of the acceptability of a certain opinion by advancing one or more
propositions designed to justify that standpoint
➢ A verbal activity: can be performed orally and in writing
➢ A social activity: directed at other people
➢ A rational activity: aimed at defending an opinion in such a way that it is
acceptable to a reasonable critic
- The term argumentation/argument has 2 different meanings:
1. The terms refers to the activity of advancing reasons
2. The terms refers to the shorter of longer text that results from it
➢ the study of argumentation concentrates not only on argumentation as a product
of rational reasoning, but also incorporated the pragmatic aspects of
argumentation as a developing process of verbal communication and social
interaction
- a great number of verbal, contextual, situational, and other pragmatic factors
influencing the course and outcome of the communication process of argumentative
discourse
- logicians: their aim is to clearly distinguish between “formally valid” argument forms
underlying specific specimens of reasoning and argument forms that are not formally
valid
➢ in argumentative discourse, there is always an explicit or implicit appeal to some
standard of reasonableness, but this does not mean that each argumentation is
indeed reasonable
- the study of argumentation has two dimensions:
1. normative dimension: relating to the ideal of reasonableness that is to be
maintained
, 2. descriptive dimension: pertaining to argumentative reality and its practical
problems
➢ these 2 dimensions are systematically integrated
1.2 explicit and implicit differences of opinion
- a difference of opinion comes into being as soon as a standpoint is not fully shared by
the people who communicate
➢ opposite standpoint
➢ doubt
◼ it need not be the case that the other person adopts the opposite
standpoint
- a difference of opinion comes into the open when one party expresses doubt or
criticism about the acceptability of the other party’s standpoint
- a difference of opinion or disagreement always involves 2 parties
- the difference of opinion is:
➢ explicit: both the standpoint and the rejections of it are clearly expressed
➢ implicit: only one party is expressing their views. The other party’s skepticism or
doubt is then anticipated
1.3 positive and negative standpoints
- in a difference of opinion, 2 different positions are taken with regard to a certain
issue, in the proposition at issue a property or quality is ascribed to persons or things
referred to
- a proposition can be a description of:
➢ facts or events
➢ a prediction
➢ a judgement
➢ advice
- proposition: a positive, negative, or neutral position (or “zero” standpoint) can be
taken
➢ VB: Dan has adopted a positive standpoint with respect to the proposition
- In a difference of opinion there is always at least one person who puts forward a
positive or negative standpoint with respect to some proposition, and one person
who has doubts or does not wish to be tied down to any particular standpoint
1.4 standpoints and expressions of doubt
- whether a proposition relates to a simple matter or a highly complex matter, it is
always possible to adopt a standpoint on it
- propositions on which standpoints are adopted can vary not only in subject matter
but also in scope: a proposition can apply to everyone, or only to certain individuals
➢ VB: “I’m certain that everyone knows fear”
- the force of a standpoint can vary as well: an opinion can be states with total
conviction, or can be expressed as a suggestion.
➢ VB: “you must have added this up wrong” “I assume that even….”
, - It maybe that a standpoint addresses more than one proposition at once.
➢ Usually, these propositions will be closely connected to each other. Conjunctions
such as ‘and’ and ‘but’
- When someone expresses a positive standpoint, it is sometimes difficult to separate
the standpoint from the proposition to which it is related. The proposition and
standpoint taken or it are often combined in a single statement, and the positive
nature of the standpoint is often not emphasized, although sometimes it is.
- It is often extremely difficult to differentiate between a negative standpoint and an
expression of doubt (a neutral position)
➢ A cautiously formulated negative standpoint can sound very much like doubt
➢ VB: “I wonder if that’s really such a good idea”
- Adopting a negative standpoint leads to the obligation to defend that negative
standpoint if it is called into question, whereas merely expressing doubt does not
create any such commitment to defend a standpoint
1.5 types of differences of opinion
- elementary form of difference of opinion: the simplest type of difference of opinion;
occurs when a standpoint meets with doubt.
- 2 variants of the elementary form: positive or negative 4 types of differences of
opinion:
1. Single nonmixed (the elementary form)
2. Single mixed
3. Multiple nonmixed
4. Multiple mixed
- Single (proposition): it involves only one proposition
- Multiple (proposition): the standpoint relates to more than one proposition; a
multiple difference of opinion will arise when someone brings up two or more issues
at the same time; whenever the standpoint involves more than one proposition on
which a party expresses an opinion, the difference of opinion is a multiple one
- Nonmixed (difference of opinion): there is only one party who is committed to
defending a standpoint; if in a single difference of opinion only one standpoint
(negative or positive) regarding a proposition is adopted and then called into doubt
by the other party.
- Mixed (difference of opinion): opposing standpoints are adopted with respect to the
same proposition. The other party rejects it; positive – negative or the other way
around
➢ Be aware that adopting an opposing standpoint always implies doubt (or lack of
full agreement) with respect to the other party’s standpoint
1.6 main differences of opinion and subordinate differences of opinion
- during the discussion occasioned by a difference of opinion, new disagreements often
surface as the arguments brought forward in defense of a standpoint meet with
doubt or rejection. In trying to identify a difference of opinion it is therefore
important to distinguish between the main difference of opinion and any
, subordinate differences of opinion that may arise during the discussion about the
main difference.
- What often happens is that the same standpoint is repeated in a somewhat different
way. it may look like a new standpoint, but it is not the case
1.7 the presentation of standpoints and doubt
- certain phrases allow the speaker or writer to indicate explicitly that a standpoint is
being taken
➢ VB: my standpoint is that…, we are of the opinion that…, I think that…, my
conclusion is that…, I believe…, etc.
- In other cases the wording strongly suggests that a standpoint is being takes, but
does not provide certainty because without more contextual information it leaves
ample room for a different interpretation
➢ VB: the way I see it…, in short…, in other words…, etc.
- There are also cases where the words themselves do not indicate that a standpoint is
being expressed, but where there is a verbal pattern that often occurs when a
standpoint is expressed, thus facilitating recognition
➢ VB: people shouldn’t…, ought to be…, you must never…, that… is…., etc.
- Looking at the context is often required in order to be able to decide whether a
statement can be analyzed as a standpoint or not
- Doubt mat be even more difficult to recognize than a standpoint, because it so often
remains implicit
- There are nevertheless certain expressions which are usually indicative of doubt
➢ VB: I don’t know whether…, I’m not entirely sure…, I’m not yet convinced that…, I
don’t really understand why…., etc.
Noeck chapter 2
- A critical discussion is an ideal argumentative discourse aimed at resolving a
difference of opinion in a reasonable way by determining whether the standpoints at
issue ought to be accepted or not
- A critical discussion proceeds through 4 stages: the confrontation, opening,
argumentation, concluding
2.1 resolving a difference of opinion
- a difference of opinion is resolved as soon as one of the 2 parties revise their original
position to the advantage of the other party
- if the difference of opinion is an elementary one, resolution is reached when the
doubting party abandons his/her doubts, or when the other party retreats from
his/her standpoint
- the end of active disagreements does not necessarily mean that the difference of
opinion has truly been resolved: distinguish resolving a difference of opinion, and
merely settling it
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