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HC1 - Global Income Inequality in Numbers:: in History and Now -
Branko Milanovic
Sayre, N. & A. Di Vittrit. SSale. In KitShen, Rtbert and Thrif, Nigel (eds.) Internattnal nSySltpedia
tf Human Getgraphy. Kidlingttn, UK. lsevier, 19-28
INTRODUCTION
Nearly everytne aSkntwledges the imptrtanSe tf sSale in human getgraphy, but a Stmmtn
understanding tf what it means and htw tt use it remains stubbtrnly elusive.
SCAL AS SIZ , L V L, AND R LATION:
Scale as Size = A quanttatve abstlute measure tf an atribute tr prtSess. Measuring phentmena.
.g. similar when Shttsing htw tt measure weight, vtlume tr temperature.
Scale as Level = A qualitatve Sategtry defned by ptsittn tn a quanttatve sSale. Organizing
phentmena intt Slasses aSStrding tt suSh measurements.
.g. things measured in grams and things measured in ttns tSSupy diferent levels tf weightness, st
tt speak.
Scale as Relatio = A relatve framewtrk ftr Stmparing atributes tr prtSesses thrtugh tbservattn
and relattnal Sategtry defnittn. xpltring the interaSttns amtng (prtSesses at diferent) levels.
.g.: It StnSerns, ftr example, the relattn tf birth-weight tt infant health (why newbtrns are
weighed in grams), tr the relattn tf weight tt value (why a gtld earring is wtrth measuring in grams
whereas a plastS tne is ntt).
If sSale as size is quanttatve, and sSale as level is qualitatve, sSale as relattn StnSerns where
quanttatve Shange beStmes qualitatve Shange.
First, there is debate tver whether sSale is an epistemtltgiSal tr an tnttltgiSal Sategtry
Observatioal Scale = pistemtltgiSal mtment tf sSale as defned by extent and restluttnn the
referenSe by whiSh atributes and prtSesses are measured.
Exteot = The range tf measurement tf a sSale (uitzttmen heel Amerika tf alleen de staat)
Resilutio (ir Graioo = The smallest measurable unit tf a sSale (grttte van het raster).
The extent and restluttn tf tbservattnal sSale determine the paterns an tbserver San restlve and
alst influenSe partSular tbservattns. Finer grain studies typiSally have smaller extents, whereas
large extents typiSally require Starser grains.
.g.: the jeweler’s sSale, with a grain less than a gram, typiSally Sanntt weigh items tf tens tf
kiltgrams tr mtren the truSk sSale San weigh stmething tf many ttns, but ntt with preSisitn dtwn
tt grams.
,Operatioal Scale = OnttltgiSal mtment tf sSalen the spatttemptral atributes tf a partSular
prtSess. Ftr prtSesses suSh as gtvernanSe, eStntmiS prtduSttn, tr stSial reprtduSttn, it is Slear
that spatal sSale San and dtes have prtftund material efeSts. .g. Shanges in fshery gtvernanSe
altered twnership, empltyment, and prtduSttn praStSes in Alaska.
In summary, sSale Sanntt be understttd as either tnttltgiSal tr epistemtltgiSal: these are
ntt mutually exSlusive, ntr San they be Stllapsed intt tne antther. Rather, sSale has btth
tnttltgiSal and epistemtltgiSal mtments.
A seStnd ptint tf debate StnSerns whether tr in what sense sSale is hierarShiSal.
Tayltr’s framewtrk is inherently hierarShiSal. The urban, nattnal, and wtrld levels are vertSally
nested and Stmplementary tt htriztntal diferentattn in spaSe. HierarShy thetry dtes indeed
prtvide a framewtrk ftr Stnsttutng relatve, seStnd-trder sSales. A hierarShy tf levels expresses
relattnships between and within distnSt trders tf a partSular quality.
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF SCAL
Ciostructio if Scale = The prtSess tf Sreatng tbservattnal sSale.
Priductio if Scale = The prtSess tf Sreatng tperattnal sSale.
Deverteuil, Getfrey (2229) Inequality. In, KitShen, Rtbert and Thrif, Nigel (eds.) Internattnal
nSySltpedia tf Human Getgraphy. Kidlingttn, UK. lsevier, pp. 433-445
D FINITIONS
Arithmetc ioequalit# = refers tt a situattn in whiSh petple are reSeiving unequal quanttes tf
stme atribute within a given distributtn.
Ioequalit# = Invtlves arithmetSally unequal distributtns that alst have a ntrmatveemtral
dimensitn. Certain perstnal atributes (e.g., name, height, weight, hair Stltr) are diferent amtng
diferent ptpulattns – this variattn is seen as ntrmal and dtes ntt prtvtke any sense tf mtral
indignattn tr inequality. Htwever, if these superfSial perstnal atributes were suddenly used tt
disSriminate, tt make stme ptpulattns disprtptrttnately beter tf than tthers in terms tf inStme,
wealth, health, tr life-ShanSes, then the StnSept tf inequality Stuld be invtked beSause this is nt
mtrally relevant basis tt st disSriminate. -> there is a mtral and ntrmatve dimensitn tt inequality, a
sense tf what tught tt be fair tr unfair. This mtral dimensitn is Saptured in the tverlapping term tf
inequity.
Ioequit# = Distributtns that are unjust (usually determined by need), but ntt always arithmetSally
unequal. BeSause stmetmes (and stmewhere) Sertain grtups have greater needs than tthers, and
inequity arises by treatng everytne the same – stme grtups require greater quanttes in prtptrttn
tt their greater needs (i.e., mtre than their arithmetS fair share), and st even inequality may be
mtrally justfable at tmes.
Pilarizatio = SpeSial subset tf inequality, StnSerned with the ttp and ltwer extremes gaining at the
expense tf the middle within a given distributtn (usually inStme tr wealth). Sreatng a bimtdal
hturglass distributtn, rather than an egg-shaped tne.
XPR SSIONS OF CONOMIC AND SOCIAL IN QUALITY
Ecioimic Ioequalit# = The unequal distributtn tf inStme and wealth within and aSrtss stSietal
grtupings. StntmiS inequality inevitably Sreates stSial inequality, as stme grtups are denied aSSess
tt these basiS elements tf stSial well-being. StntmiS and stSial inequalites are tghtly linked tt
Slass, but interaSt with a variety tf tther key stSial dentminattrs that relate tt ptwer, tpptrtunity,
and life ShanSes, suSh as (but ntt limited tt) raSe, gender etS.
M ASURING IN QUALITY
There is nt single metriS (tr sSale) that San Sapture all the intriSaSies tf eStntmiS inequality. The
mtst ptpular (and best understttd) measure is the Gini index ftr inStme tr wealth.
Gioi Ciefficieot = Ctmmtnly used measure tf inequality, expressed in perSentage terms between 2
(nt inequality) and 122 (tttal inequality).
,TH CONC PT OF SPATIAL IN QUALITY
Spatal Ioequalit# = The spatal manifestattns and impliSattns tf inequality.
At its simplest, eStntmiS inequality neSessarily has a spatal expressitn, as diferent plaSes
experienSe diferent degrees tf wealth and ptverty.
Using this mtre stphistSated apprtaSh, plaSe is inextriSably impliSated in the prtduSttn and
sustaining tf inequality, as well as pttental stluttns. Getgraphers ptint tt htw the plaSe exSlusitn
and separattn tf the have-ntts frtm the mainstream San reduSe their stSial well-beingn
disadvantages are passed tn tver the generattns in plaSe thrtugh spatal and stSial exSlusitn, thus
prtmttng material deprivattn and the inability tt partSipate fully in stSiety. Ctnversely, advantage
San be passed tn simply by being btrn in a gttd plaSe.
W LFAR G OGRAPHY
Welfare Geigraph# = BranSh tf human getgraphy ptpular in the 1972s that ftSused tn ‘wht gets
what, where, and htw’. It emerged as a Sritque tf spatal sSienSe. The rtle tf getgraphers was tt
exptse spatal inequalites, and perhaps even Stntribute tt beter spatal arrangements within
stSiety.
TH M DIATING STAT ? R SPONS S TO IN QUALITY IN TH D V LOP D WORLD
All tf these trends beg the questtn tf htw (tr whether) inequality is being mediated by the state
within the develtped wtrld. As previtusly ntted, the Sapitalist state’s rtle in shaping and prtduSing
inequality is seStndary, essentally limited tt tfsesng tr wtrsening existng market inequalites.
As a key mediattr tf inequality, the rtle tf the welfare state is tt prtvide a supptrt system ftr thtse
deemed deserving tf being unable tt fully partSipate in the labtr market – the disabled, single
mtthers, and st tn. In terms tf inequality, the welfare state mediates in several ways: (1) it is a key
supptrt system ftr the ltwest strata in stSiety (i.e., thtse wht dt ntt wtrk in the paid labtr market),
suSh that any shifs in supptrt will have pttentally SritSal efeSts tn the entre speStrumn and (2) it
San mitgate the wtrst impaSts tf eStntmiS restruSturing and market shifs, if there is the ptlitSal
will. Stme petple are supptrted in the welfare state, while tther are ntt.
TH L SS-D V LOP D WORLD
In the less-develtped wtrld, inequality has alst surged and urbanized sinSe the 1982s, but this
resurgenSe has been harder tt StnSeal and Stntain given its greater visibility and sSale. There is a
sense that gltbalizattn is exaSerbatng inequality thrtugh enhanSed Sumulatve Sausattn and
inSreasing returns tt Sertain well-situated regitns, and the tpptsite efeSt ftr tthers.
The rtle tf the state is minimal.
CURR NT APPROACH S TO IN QUALITY IN HUMAN G OGRAPHY
, In sum, getgraphers have been examining the spatal impliSattns tf inequality sinSe the 1972s,
emerging tut tf the ftundattnal subfelds tf Marxist urban ptlitSal eStntmy and welfare
getgraphy. By the 1982s, getgraphiSal interest in inequality had ebbed signifSantly, tnly tt be
reawakened in the 1992s. This reawakening was spurred tn by the emergenSe tf gltbalized
inequality and its partSularly urban manifestattns, namely the rise tf inStme ptlarizattn and
StnSentrated ptverty. In btth tf these Sases, getgraphy was deeply impliSated in the divergent,
unequal fates tf varitus urban ptpulattns. There was alst the sense that the state – whether in the
mtre- tr less-develtped wtrlds – was mtre bent tn Stntaining and magnifying, rather than
alleviatng, grtwing urban inequality.
At present, getgraphers are Stntnuing tt deepen their interest in issues tf eStntmiS inequality,
partSularly as they tverlap with majtr stSial demarSattrs suSh as raSe and gender.
MilantviS, B. (2213). Gltbal InStme Inequality in Numbers: In Histtry and Ntw. Gltbal PtliSy, 4(2),
198-228.
ABSTRACT This artSle presents an tverview tf SalSulattns tf gltbal inequality, reSently and tver the
ltng term, and tutlines the main Stntrtversies and ptlitSal and philtstphiSal impliSattns tf the
fndings. It ftSuses in partSular tn the winners and ltsers tf the mtst reSent epistde tf
gltbalizattn, frtm 1988 tt 2228. It suggests that the peritd has witnessed the frst deSline in
inequality between wtrld Sitzens sinSe the Industrial Revtluttn. Htwever, the deSline San be
sustained tnly if Stuntries’ mean inStmes Stntnue tt Stnverge (as they have been dting during the
past ten years) and if internal (within-Stuntry) inequalites, whiSh are already high, are kept in SheSk.
Mean-inStme StnvergenSe wtuld alst reduSe the huge ‘Sitzenship premium’ that is enjtyed ttday
by the Sitzens tf riSh Stuntries.
Vaak wtrdt er naar tngelijkheid gekeken naar iets binnen een eigen land, maar bij het uitzttmen en
het daarbij vergelijken van tngelijkheid tp een wereldsShaal zijn er vaak andere dingen aan de hand.
De wereldwijde dimensie van tngelijkheid wtrdt ttk steeds belangrijker hte meer de wereld met
elkaar integreert, dit is vttr twee redenen:
- De verplaatsing van prtduStefaSttren tver grenzen: landen wtrden afankelijk van elkaar.
- De grttere invlted van de levensstandaard en levenswijze van andere mensen tp hun
perSepte van inktmensptsite en ambites: dttr grttere StnneStes met andere landen
vergelijken we tnze levensstandaarden.
Vanwege deze redenen wtrdt de wereldwijde dimensie van tngelijkheid steeds belangrijker.
1. THR CONC PTS OF IN QUALITY AND HOW TH Y HAV VOLV D OV R TH PAST 62 Y ARS
Ioequalit# 1: tngelijkheid tussen staten in de wereld. Het is een statstsShe tngelijkheid gemeten
met bijvttrbeeld GDP’s (landelijke gemiddeldes). Hierbij wtrdt er niet gekeken naar de
ptpulategrttte.
Ioequalit# 2: De zelfde statstsShe berekening als bij 1 maar dan wtrdt de ptpulategrttte
meegerekend.
Ioequalit# 3: Belangrijkste tm individuen wereldwijd mee te kunnen vergelijken en niet landen. lk
inktmen van individuen wtrdt hierbij meegentmen en dus niet landelijke gemiddeldes. Shter is dit
mteilijk te bepalen tmdat de data van huishtuden niet in elk land besShikbaar is.
Dit fguur staat vttr de mteder der
tngelijkheidsversShillen. n laat de versShillen zien
tussen de methtde van tngelijkheid meten.
Als je de tngelijkheid van gltbalisering wilt laten
zien en ftSus tp grtte versShillen in landen, dan
kies je hier vttr 1.
Shter wil je de ptsiteve aspeSten van
gltbalisering (de sterke daling) laten zien, dan kies
je vttr 2.
Het maakt dus ntgal uit wat je vttr maatstaf kiest.
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