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Summary Russia: Opposition
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Why did Opposition Grow in 2nd Half 1800s? Liberal Intelligentsia The Populists Radical ThinkersLiteracy: Literacy improved from 12% in 1850 to 28.4% in 1897, Ideologies: Nihilism (all values baseless + nothing can be 1874 Going to the People movement Failed Ideologies: Anarchism, Socialism, Marxism
allowing more people to read revolutionary books known/comminated. Anarchism (self-governed institutions, no state Led to… Key Figures:
Population: Moscow and St Petersburg’s population increased as harmful + unnecessary). Most in 2 categories: Westerners (copy 1876 Land and Liberty from GTTP (1st modern Karl Marx: German Jew, studied law + journalist. Moved
massively in the second half, from 347k for Moscow and 450k for St Western ways to catch up). Slavophiles (favoured superior Russian revolutionary group) to France in early 1840s, writings led to expulsion from
Petersburg to 1.2 M and 1.3 M respectively path to better future). Led to… city + settled in Belgium. Wrote The Communist
Social Change: Intelligentsia used to mean well educated public Key Figures: 1879 Splinter groups from Land and Liberty: Manifesto with friend Friedrich Engels in 1848 (just
figures, by 1890s evolved to those who opposed Tsarist regime. Ivan Turgenev: writer, Westerniser from travelling through Europe, People’s Will (Use of terror, assassinated before revolutions of 48-49). Wrote Das Kapital after
published Sportsman's Sketches (1952), influenced educated Russian Alexander II) moving to London, 1st volume published 1867 +
opinion in favour of abolishment of serfdom. Novels such as Fathers Black Repartition (Rejection of terror, continuations in 1885 and 1894.
1860 20k Russian professionals, 85k by 1890
and Sons (1862) addressed issues with contemporary Russian society. emphasised education + organisation of the Nicholai Chernyshevsky: wrote journal The
people + eventual adoption of Marxism) Contemporary and book What is to be done? In 1862
Originally made up of nobles, became dominated by -Leo Tolstoy: Slavophile, began career in army + wrote as travelled Govt repression largely destroyed revolutionary groups when in Peter and Paul fortress in St Petersburg
classless people (raznochintsky) after 1861 around Europe (e.g. Sevastopol Sketches (1855-56) + The Cossacks within Russia in 1880 + most of 90s. But end of 90s + early Alexandr Herzen: editor of radical journal The Bell,
(1863). Set up school for peasant children when returned to family 1900s new groups emerged. smuggled into Russia. Argued for peasant-based social
estates + wrote War and Peace (1865-69) which established structure.
1833 78.9% of secondary school pupils were sons of reputation. Followed by Anna Karenina (1875-77) Both about Mikhail Bakunin: anarchist and socialist, exiled, helped
nobles and bureaucrats, by 1885 they were 49.1%. While groups separate, had overlapping ideological
meaning of life, in later yrs devoted to liberal reform, advocating introduce Marxism into Russia by translating communist
differences, e.g. SRs have Marxist influence + Bolsheviks
simplicity + non-violence. manifesto in 1869
had terroristic tradition.
Nicholas I kept the number of university students at Key Developments of Period: Key Developments of Period:
3,000 per year, fearing a large, potentially Tsar denied central body to St Petersburg zemstvo (partly changed 869: Alexandr Herzen called on followers to 'go to the
revolutionary, intelligentsia. By 1894 there were mind at end of 1870s). Restriction of Zemstva powers by Alexander III Social Revolutionaries (1901): Populism in people'. Bakunin and Sergei Nechaev in 1869 wrote
25,000 students. disappointed Zemstva liberals. Slavophile popularity diminished in new form, focus on peasantry, use of manifesto Catechism of a Revolutionary, published in
1890s after 1881 peak as country industrialised. Split in Intelligentsia terrorism + cooperation with peasants Switzerland + smuggled into Russia.
between Marxism and Socialism and liberalism. 1891-92 famine, 1871: Nechaev returned to Russia via underground
Similarly the number of periodicals increased from 15 increased calls and evidence that Tsarist system needed to change. By contacts, determined to execute revolution. Soon forced
in 1855 to 140 by 1885. mid-1890s renewed Zemstva-call for advisory national body Social Democratic Party (1898): Marxist to flee after murder of student who disagreed with him.
(working class focused). Split in 1903 into
Bolsheviks + Mensheviks
Marxism + Socialism Populism, Nihilism + Slavophiles/Westerners Tchaikovsky’s Circle/Going to the People/Land and Liberty/Emancipation of
Marxism: Society progressed due to Class Conflict. All Populism: Form of socialism where peasantry would act as Labour/Young Russia
societies have minority ruling class (oppressive class) + revolutionary class + overthrow the monarchy. Arose after 1861
majority oppressed class. Opposition leads to econ, social + Emancipation of Serfs, argued free serfs weren’t truly free, bourgeoise
replaced landowners as oppressors. Not fully against traditional
political change, as oppressed revel against oppressive. Russian agricultural system, but hated former land ownership system +
Lead to new stage in history, but one where one class saw village commune as embryo of socialism. Focused on growing
doesn’t repress another. Marx saw 19th century conflict between peasantry + Kulaks. Although many groups all
industrialising nations as leaving ‘feudal’ stage (where believed on destroying monarchy + Kulaks + fairly distributing land
nobles oppressors) to ‘bourgeois’ stage (middle-class among peasantry. Believed possible to forgo capitalist phase + go
overtake nobles as dominant oppressive class + industrial directly to socialism. Believed peasantry were revolutionary class, but
class oppressed class). While improvement of previous, could not achieve revolution on own, could only be made by
outstanding personalities who would lead the peasantry to revolution.
bringing democracy + civil rights, class conflict still occurred
due to terrible working/living conditions for working-class
another revolution. Nihilism: All values are baseless, rejected authority of the state,
Proletarian (working-class) revolution, final Communist church and family. E.g. Mikhail Bakunin. By late 1870s operated as
political groups advocated terrorism + assassinations.
stage. Everyone equal (no Class Conflict). Everyone live in
harmony. Marx describing W European countries, not
Russia (still feudal stage). Slavophiles: Russian culture + civilisation unique + superior to Western
culture as based on Orthodox Eastern Church + mir. Advocated unique
form of development for Russia, different from W Europe model.
Socialism: Economic system where means of producing Supported autocracy + opposed political participation. Favoured
wealth is owned by the state or the worker-owned emancipation of serfs + freedom of speech + press. Examples include
cooperatives. Another belief is management of econ + Leo Tolstoy
society should be based on public interests. Workers own
means of production. Most extreme is Communism where Westerners: Rejected feudalism/serfdom in economy, political life + culture.
no state, money or social classes. Demanded Western-style socio-economic reforms. Thought it would be possible
to establish bourgeois democratic system by peaceful means. Believed education
+ propaganda could turn public opinion + force Tsar to start bourgeois reforms.
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