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Samenvatting van alle artikelen van Medische sociologie, 2024

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Dit is een samenvatting van alle artikelen van Medische sociologie (dus niet van het boek, die verkoop ik overigens wel). Het is geschreven in de taal van de artikelen zelf, dus sommige artikelen zijn in het Engels geschreven en sommige in het Nederlands. Deze artikelen zijn: - Understanding healt...

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  • March 30, 2024
  • 58
  • 2023/2024
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Understanding health sociologically – McDaniel

Pages 826-841

Sociology of health and illness/Medical sociology encompasses at least 3 sociological specialties:
1. Sociology of health/illness: focuses on the social dimensions and determinants of health,
cause, and consequence as well as context
2. Sociology of health care/medicine: examines health care systems, how they work or do not
work, often comparing systems internationally
3. Sociology of health policy: overlaps with sociology of health care, but encompasses more
than health care in focusing on what social and economic policies contribute to, or detract
from, health and well-being

After health came to be seen as more than the absence of disease, the sociological study of health
and illness began  the focus on what contributes to well-being and keeps individuals and societies
healthy is relatively new

Structural functionalism perspective (especially during the 1950s and 1960s): society is an orderly
array of functioning social institutions that articulate with each other  individuals in social
institutions play roles prescribed by society and learned through socialization  illness was seen as a
sick role which encompasses both rights and duties; the sick person was exempt from normal role
responsibilities but had a duty to work to get well and to seek appropriate professional help  this
perspective fails to address issues of power and conflict, its preoccupation with restoration to health
does not address chronic illnesses or disabilities, and it overestimates the power of medical
professionals

The sick role in the 21st century means a personal responsibility for one’s own health in healthy
eating, weight control, and avoidance of risky health behaviors (such as smoking)  there is even
some movement not to cover health care costs for those who are perceived as not taking personal
responsibility for their own health  advances in medical treatments have resurrected the notion of
the sick role (for example, highly technological interventions tend to conceptualize the human body
as a kind of machine)  contexts (social, psychic, or biographical) tend to be overlooked in the quest
to restore the body from its sickness, or from the sick role

Straus made the distinction between to 2 types of sociology:
 Sociology of medicine: study of issues of interest to medical practitioners
 Sociology in medicine: a more critical analytical stance intended to enhance sociological
knowledge

Foucault: sees power as diffused and embedded in social relations whereby people internalize
professional models and act as willing subjects  an example of his approach: theory of looping
effects (Hacking) which means that social science or medically created categories/labels can have
looping effects by changing the individuals thus classified  another example is that suicide was first
seen as criminal and later as a public health and mental health issue  Foucault started the creation
of the sociology of the body which looks at the body as a social and cultural construct

Social psychological approaches focus on human agency, or the actions or behaviors of individuals
with respect to health and illness  these approaches are interested in how we construct meaning
and interpret the world through social interactions

,Life course theory: focuses on the intersection of individual biographies with historical events  in
sociology of health and illness, it brings attention to how early experiences, present circumstances,
and the timing of historical events in lives can all work together to affect health and well-being

Disability theory: sees disability as a social construction and a product of social organization 
impairment is seen as a bodily dysfunction while disability is produced through processes of social
exclusion  this theory is criticized for its emphasis on structural constraints, and its separation of
bodily experiences from social life; the impaired body should be seen as part of history and culture
and having meaning not only as a biological entity of interest to medicine

Structuration theory (Giddens): focuses neither on individual experiences nor on structure per se,
but on social practices across time and space  it can reveal how we behave in ways to which we are
habituated but which may not be taken-for-granted  as individuals, we can make choices, however,
about those practices to which we have been socialized  Bourdieu: also relies on the structuration
theory; sees each of us situated in social space with differential amounts and kinds of capital (social,
cultural, and symbolic)  we act in accordance with a set of acquired dispositions called habitus,
which are essential to social reproduction and social regulation  Bourdieu moves sociology of
health and illness away from the body as an object of scrutiny to the body as an integral part of the
social actor; a source and site of knowledge and intention  the embodied agent produces society
and is produced by it  from this perspective, body, mind, spirit, and society are intertwined

There is persistence of health inequalities in societies whereby the poor and vulnerable suffer worse
health and die younger than better-off groups  theory of fundamental causes: argues that as
intervening mechanisms between socioeconomic status and health outcomes (such as poor
sanitation or infectious diseases) lessen, new mechanisms arise by which the advantaged benefit
(such as knowledge, power, money, and social connections)  socioeconomic status is seen as a
fundamental cause of illness  this theory implies that efforts to improve overall health of
populations by interventions with individual risks will be ineffective because socially unequal
conditions remain  the view that unhealthy lifestyles and choices are the cause of most health
disparities contrasts with the fundamental cause theory  lower levels of socioeconomic inequality
may possibly buffer the relationship between socioeconomic resources and health risks

Social stressors also impact health (such as death of a spouse, hob loss, eviction, insufficient income)
 the effects on health vary by social groups (for example, minority groups have been found to have
negative health effects from the stresses of discrimination)

Whitehall study (Marmot and Theorell): there was a sharp and clear gradient in mortality from top
to bottom of the hierarchy  in each gradient, down from the top, mortality increased even though
everyone in the study had jobs and relatively low risk work  these people were not poor or
materially deprived, even at the bottom levels (so the standard explanation that the poor were
deprived of nutritious food, good living conditions, and suffer from crowding at home, and risks of
infectious illnesses, did not work)  this study showed that there is something about social hierarchy
that powerfully affects our health, and it doesn’t only operate on an underclass which is deprived,
but on all of us  people in the top levels smoked hardly at all, while those in the lower levels
smoked more commonly, and even among those in the top levels those who did smoke were much
less likely to die of smoking-related diseases  the smoking gradient is likely less related to choice
than to social environments  the degree of the unexplained mortality risks also increases with each
level one moves down  postponement of death seems to be a privilege given to those who are
higher in the social hierarchy

The more years of schooling (indicator of socioeconomic status), the less risk of dementia in old age
there seems to be  this could be because those who are better educated are better able and more

,motivated to mask their symptoms in examinations, but it could also be because education might
condition the brain in such a way that the physiological processes of deterioration are resisted  if
that’s true, serious mental diminishment in old age may be reflective of social and educational policy
failures in earlier lives

More egalitarian societies, regardless of their level of socioeconomic development, have better
overall health and greater life expectancy  it is speculated that more unequal societies may be
characterized by greater status competition and class awareness which results in more widespread
health disadvantage  more unequal societies tend to have higher rates of violence and lower
degrees of trust than more egalitarian societies, which suggests that inequality can harm society’s
well-being, affecting everyone to some extent  in more unequal societies, the lower social status
rung is lower than in more equal societies  people at the very bottom may be made to feel looked
down upon, and seen as inferior  they will also have less control over their lives  because of their
poor living conditions, those at the bottom are more susceptible to infectious illnesses, which can
spread to those in other classes

The quality of norms and social institutions in a country has strong well-being effects, even larger
than those found to flow through better incomes  it is found to be misleading to focus on
productivity and income enhancements to increase well-being

Het Nederlandse zorgstelsel – Rijksoverheid

Pagina’s 1-28

Het Nederlandse zorgstelsel is gebaseerd op toegang tot zorg voor iedereen, solidariteit via een voor
iedereen verplichte en toegankelijke zorgverzekering en goede kwaliteit van zorg  het zorgstelsel
wordt geregeld met 4 stelselwetten:
1. De Zorgverzekeringswet (Zvw): wet die iedere Nederlander van een breed basispakket aan
zorg verzekert en die de uitvoering overlaat aan privaat, elkaar beconcurrerende
zorgverzekeraars en zorgaanbieders; er is sprake van gereguleerde marktwerking onder
publieke randvoorwaarden  zorgt voor minder wachtlijsten en bureaucratie en meer
aandacht voor doelmatigheid en kwaliteit  Zvw heeft gezorgd voor een omslag van een
aanbodgestuurd naar een vraaggestuurd systeem
2. De Wet langdurige zorg (Wlz): mensen die aangewezen zijn op permanent toezicht of 24-
uurszorg in de nabijheid, hebben recht op zorg uit de Wlz  wordt op landelijk niveau in
opdracht van de Rijksoverheid uitgevoerd door Wlz-uitvoerders  ook het Centrum
Indicatiestelling Zorg (CIZ) en het Centraal Administratie Kantoor (CAK) zijn betrokken
3. De Wet maatschappelijke ondersteuning (Wmo): zijn er voor overige vormen van zorg en
ondersteuning  gemeenten zijn primair verantwoordelijk voor uitvoering en die kunnen
ondersteuning, hulp of zorg zelf aanbieden of met de inzet van een zorgaanbieder  het idee
achter dat gemeenten hiervoor zorgen is dat gemeenten dichter bij de burger staan en
daarom doelmatige zorg van een hogere kwaliteit kunnen bieden
4. De Jeugdwet: zijn er voor overige vormen van zorg en ondersteuning  gemeenten zijn
primair verantwoordelijk voor uitvoering en die kunnen ondersteuning, hulp of zorg zelf
aanbieden of met de inzet van een zorgaanbieder
 Deze stelselwetten leggen de basis voor de zorg  de Zorgverzekeringswet (cure) en de Wet
langdurige zorg (care) gebruiken het grootste gedeelde van het budget dat in Nederland beschikbaar
is voor zorg

Wlz, Wmo en Jeugdwet: doel is om kansen om de kwaliteit van de zorg te verbeteren, een integrale
aanpak te bevorderen en de zorg in tijden van vergrijzing en chronische aandoeningen toegankelijk
en betaalbaar te houden  uitgangspunt zijn de mogelijkheden van mensen (niet de

, tekortkomingen)  in de eerste instantie wordt er een beroep gedaan op het eigen netwerk en
middelen voor ondersteuning, maar de ondersteuning is altijd beschikbaar voor diegenen die er niet
zelf in kunnen voorzien




Met de Zorgverzekeringswet wordt de vergoeding van curatieve zorg geregeld  de overheid is direct
betrokken bij de invulling van de Zvw en stelt randvoorwaarden, maar de overheid is niet direct
betrokken bij de uitvoering van de Zvw; die uitvoering wordt bepaald door zorgaanbieders,
zorgverzekeraars en verzekerden (zij hebben veel vrijheid en concurrentie en marktwerking zorgen
voor prikkels om met een hoge kwaliteit en doelmatig te werken)  de Zvw is een verzekering
waarbij alle verzekerden samen de totale kosten van alle zorg opbrengen

De overheid stelt randvoorwaarden die het sociale karakter van de zorgverzekering waarborgen:
 Burgers zijn verplicht om een (basis)zorgverzekering af te sluiten en zijn vrij in het kiezen van
hun eigen verzekeraar
 Zorgverzekeraars zijn verplicht die burgers voor de zorgverzekering te accepteren, ongeacht
hun gezondheidstoestand
 De premie van een aangeboden polis is gelijk voor iedere verzekerde, ongeacht zijn
gezondheidssituatie, leeftijd of achtergrond
 Zorgverzekeraars hebben een zorgplicht: zij moeten garanderen dat de zorg die in het
basispakket zit beschikbaar is voor al hun verzekerden
 De inhoud van het verzekerde basispakket is wettelijk bepaald

Basispakket: de Rijksoverheid is verantwoordelijk voor de inhoud en de omvang van het zorgpakket
dat voor iedereen toegankelijk is en wordt geadviseerd door het Zorginstituut Nederland  de
overheid bepaalt dus wat voor zorg er in het pakket zit en wanneer die zorg geleverd mag worden 
binnen het door de overheid bepaalde pakket hebben zorgverzekeraars de ruimte om binnen
voorgeschreven kaders te regelen wie de zorg levert en waar de zorg geleverd wordt (dit doen ze
door goed te onderhandelen en selectief te contracteren op basis van de grote hoeveelheid
informatie die zij hebben over kwaliteit, doelmatigheid en klantenervaringen)  zorgverzekeraars
bieden ook aanvullende verzekeringen aan voor extra zorg en burgers kunnen zelf bepalen of ze
gebruik willen maken van aanvullende verzekeringen  de aanvullende verzekering heeft een privaat
karakter waar de overheid geen regels aan stelt

Burgers sturen de kwaliteit van de geleverde zorg en de kwaliteit van de verzekering doordat ze van
zorgaanbieder kunnen wisselen en daardoor invloed kunnen uitoefenen op de zorgaanbieders (die
moeten werken voor de gunst van de verzekerde)  ook kunnen ze via vertegenwoordigende
organen invloed uitoefenen op het beleid van verzekeraars; als ze ontevreden zijn, kunnen ze zich
richten tot verschillende onafhankelijke instanties  zorgverzekeraars controleren de kwaliteit en
doelmatigheid van zorg als ze die inkopen en doordat het budget voor de zorg vaststaat, worden ze

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