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Summary Essential Criminology
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Engelse Samenvatting Essential Criminology H 1 t/m 11 (H2 niet inbegrepen)
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Essential CriminologyChapter 1: What is Criminology? The Study of Crime, Criminals, and Victms in a Global Context....................5
Globalization.........................................................................................................................................................5
What is Criminology?............................................................................................................................................5
Is Criminology Scientici..................................................................................................................................5
Is Criminology a Disciplinei..............................................................................................................................5
What is Comparatie and Global Criminologyi...............................................................................................5
What is Victimology?............................................................................................................................................6
Criminology and Public Policy...............................................................................................................................6
Summary and Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................6
Chapter 3: Classical, Neoclassical, and Ratonal-Choice Theories.....................................................................7
The Pre-classical Era.............................................................................................................................................7
The Classical Reaction...........................................................................................................................................7
Cesare Beccaria.................................................................................................................................................7
Jeremy Bentham...............................................................................................................................................8
Limitatons of Classical Theory.........................................................................................................................8
Neoclassical Revisions..........................................................................................................................................8
Criminal Justice Implicationss The Move to “Justice” Theory...............................................................................8
The Conseriatie LaawandwOrder Turn............................................................................................................9
Determinate or Mandatory Sentencing...........................................................................................................9
ThreewStrikes Laas............................................................................................................................................9
Incapacitaton...................................................................................................................................................9
Deterrence and the Death Penalty...................................................................................................................9
Redefining Rational Choices Situational Factors and Routine-Activities Theory................................................10
Policy Implicatons of RatonalwChoice and Routnew-ctiites Theories........................................................10
Conceptual and Empirical Limitationss What the Research Shows....................................................................10
Eiidence on the RatonalwChoice DecisionwMaking Process..........................................................................10
Eiidence on Routne -ctiites and Crime......................................................................................................10
Summary and Conclusion...................................................................................................................................10
Chapter 4: “Born to Be Bad”: Biological, Physiological, and Biosocial Theories of Crime................................11
Biological and Positivistic Assumptions..............................................................................................................11
The Social Context of Criminal -nthropology................................................................................................11
The Born Criminal...............................................................................................................................................11
Early US Family-Type and Body-Type Theories...................................................................................................11
Contemporary Biological Perspectives...............................................................................................................12
Tain Studies and -dopton Studies................................................................................................................12
Biosocial Criminologys A Developmental Explanation of Crime.........................................................................12
Chromosomes, Nerious System, -tenton Deicit Disorder, Hormones, and the Brain..............................12
The Importance of Neurotransmiters in Relaton to Depression and -ggression........................................12
Recent Directons in Biosocial Criminology....................................................................................................13
Conceptual and Empirical Limitations................................................................................................................13
Criminal Justice Policy Implications....................................................................................................................13
Summary and Conclusion...................................................................................................................................13
,Chapter 5: Criminal Minds: Psychiatric and Psychological Explanatons for Crime.........................................14
From Sick Minds to Abnormal Behavior.............................................................................................................14
Shared Psychological Assumptions.....................................................................................................................14
The Psychoanalytic Approach.............................................................................................................................15
Blaming the Mother: -tachment Theory......................................................................................................15
Maladaptie Coping Strategies: Frustratonw-ggression Theory...................................................................15
The Limitatons and Policy Implicatons of Psychoanalytc Theory................................................................15
Trait-Based Personality Theories........................................................................................................................16
The Limitatons and Policy Implicatons of TraitwBased Psychology...............................................................16
Behavioral, Situational, and Social Learning and Modeling Theories................................................................16
Behaiioral Learning Theory............................................................................................................................16
Social Learning and Modeling Theory............................................................................................................16
Limitatons and Policy Implicatons of Learning Theory.................................................................................16
Cognitive Theories..............................................................................................................................................17
Limitatons and Policy Implicatons of Cognitie Theory...............................................................................17
Ecological Psychology.........................................................................................................................................17
Evolutionary Psychology.....................................................................................................................................18
Limitatons and Policy Implicatons of Ecological and Eiolutonary Psychology...........................................18
Summary and Conclusion...................................................................................................................................18
Chapter 6: Learning Criminal Behavior: Social Process Theories....................................................................19
Common Themes and Diferent Assumptions....................................................................................................19
Sutherland’s Diferential Association Theory.....................................................................................................19
Empirical Support and Limitatons of Diferental -ssociaton Theory..........................................................20
Modifying Diferental -ssociaton: Diferental Reinforcement Theory and Diferental Identicaton
Theory.............................................................................................................................................................20
Policy Implicatons of Diferental -ssociaton and Social Learning Theory...................................................20
Limitatons of Diferental Reinforcement Theory.........................................................................................20
Cognitive Social Learning Theory........................................................................................................................21
Neutralization Theorys Learning Rationalizations as Motives............................................................................21
Drifing In and Out of Delinquency: Mataa and Sykesss Neutraliaaton Theory.............................................21
Bandurass Moral Disengagement Theory.......................................................................................................22
Policy Implicatons of Neutraliaaton and Moral Disengagement Theory......................................................23
Limitatons and Eialuaton of Neutraliaaton Explanatons...........................................................................23
Summary and Conclusion...................................................................................................................................23
Chapter 7: Failed Socializaton: Control Theory, Social Bonds, and Labeling..................................................24
Control Theorys Learning Not to Commit Crime.................................................................................................24
Kinds of Social Control Theory: Broken Bonds or Failure to Bondi...............................................................24
Hirschiss Social Control Theory.......................................................................................................................24
Hirschi and Gotredsonss SelfwControl Theory...............................................................................................25
Policy Implicatons of Control Theory............................................................................................................25
Eialuaton of Social Control and SelfwControl Theory....................................................................................25
Labeling Theorys A Special Case of Failed Socialization?....................................................................................25
Symbolic Interactonist Roots of Labeling Theory..........................................................................................25
Lemertss Primary and Secondary Deiiance....................................................................................................26
Beckerss Interactonist Theory: Social Reacton and Master Status...............................................................26
Gofmanss Stgma and Total Insttutons........................................................................................................26
Braithaaitess Reintegratie Shaming.............................................................................................................27
2
, Matsuedass Informal Negatie Labeling and Diferental Social Control.......................................................27
Policy Implicatons of Labeling Theory...........................................................................................................27
Eialuaton of Labeling Theory........................................................................................................................27
Summary and Conclusion...................................................................................................................................27
Chapter 8: Crimes of Place: Social Ecology and Cultural Theories of Crime....................................................29
The Historical Roots of Social Ecology Theory....................................................................................................29
Common Themes and Assumptions...................................................................................................................29
The Chicago School.............................................................................................................................................29
Social Disorganiaaton.....................................................................................................................................30
Shaa and McKayss Landmark Research.........................................................................................................30
Policy Implicatons of the Chicago Schoolss Social Ecology............................................................................30
Eialuaton of the Chicago Schoolss Social Ecology Theory.............................................................................30
The New Social Ecology Theories........................................................................................................................30
Social Ecology, Urban Design, and Eniironmental Criminology....................................................................31
Critcal Ecology................................................................................................................................................31
Integrated and Systemic Ecology...................................................................................................................31
Systemic Ecology Policy..................................................................................................................................32
Cultural Theories of Crime and Deviance...........................................................................................................32
Sellinss Culture Confict Theory......................................................................................................................32
Beyond Social Ecology: The Politcs of the City, Gangs, and Crime................................................................32
Global Policy Implicatons of Critcal Gang Studies........................................................................................32
Summary and Conclusion...................................................................................................................................33
Chapter 9: The Sick Society: Anomie, Strain, and Subcultural Theory............................................................34
Common Themes and Assumptions...................................................................................................................34
Founders of Anomie and Strain Theory..............................................................................................................35
Durkheimss Original Concept of -nomie........................................................................................................35
Mertonss Instrumental -nomie and Diferental Opportunity Structures.....................................................35
Cohen: Status Frustraton and Delinquent Subcultures.................................................................................36
Cloaard and Ohlin: Diferental Opportunity Structures and -lienated Youths............................................36
Policy Implicatons of Traditonal Strain Theory.............................................................................................37
Eialuaton of Traditonal Strain Theory..........................................................................................................37
Recent Revisions to Anomie and Strain Theory..................................................................................................38
-gneass General (or Reiised) Strain Theory..................................................................................................38
Policy Implicatons of General Strain Theory.................................................................................................38
Eialuaton of General Strain Theory..............................................................................................................38
Messner and Rosenfeldss Insttutonal -nomie Theory.................................................................................38
Policy Implicatons of Insttutonal -nomie....................................................................................................39
Eialuaton of Insttutonal -nomie Theory.....................................................................................................39
Global -nomie Theory and Crime..................................................................................................................39
Summary and Conclusion...................................................................................................................................40
Chapter 10: Capitalism as a Criminogenic Society: Confict and Radical Theories of Crime.............................41
Common Themes and Assumptions and Some Key Diferences.........................................................................41
The Roots of Confict Criminology......................................................................................................................41
Weberss Class, Status, and Party....................................................................................................................42
Simmelss Functons of Group Confict............................................................................................................42
Dahrendorfss Dialectcal Confict Perspectie................................................................................................42
Voldss Group Confict Theory.........................................................................................................................42
3
, Contemporary Confict Criminology...................................................................................................................42
Turk and the Criminaliaaton of Resistng Subordinates................................................................................42
Quinneyss Social Reality of Crime...................................................................................................................43
Policy Implicatons of Confict Theory............................................................................................................43
Eialuaton of Confict Theory.........................................................................................................................44
The Roots of Radical Theorys Marx’s Analysis of Capitalist Society...................................................................44
Marxss Paradox of Laa and Capitalism as Crime Producing..........................................................................44
Bongerss Criminality and Economic Conditons.............................................................................................45
Contemporary Radical Criminology....................................................................................................................45
Common Themes and Assumptions...................................................................................................................45
The Capitalist State and Crime Control: Instrumental iersus Structural Marxism........................................46
Recent Deielopments: Toaard a Global Radical Criminology.......................................................................46
Policy Implicatons of Radical Theory.............................................................................................................46
Eialuaton of Radical Theory..........................................................................................................................46
Summary and Conclusion...................................................................................................................................47
Chapter 11: Patriarchy, Gender and Crime: Feminist Criminological Theory..................................................48
Common Themes and Assumptions...................................................................................................................48
Liberal Feminism.................................................................................................................................................48
Masculiniaaton and the Emancipaton Thesis...............................................................................................49
Eialuaton of Liberal Feminism......................................................................................................................49
Radical Feminism................................................................................................................................................49
Policy Implicatons of Radical Feminist Theory..............................................................................................49
Eialuaton of Radical Feminist Criminology...................................................................................................50
Marxist Feminism...............................................................................................................................................50
Eialuaton of Marxist Feminism.....................................................................................................................50
Socialist Feminism..............................................................................................................................................50
Haganss PoaerwControl Theory......................................................................................................................50
Policy Implicatons of Socialist Feminism.......................................................................................................51
Eialuaton of Socialist Feminism....................................................................................................................51
Gendered Theory................................................................................................................................................51
Epistemological Issues and Postmodern Feminism............................................................................................51
Summary and Conclusion...................................................................................................................................52
Chapter 12: New Directons in Critcal Criminological Theory........................................................................53
Critical Criminologies..........................................................................................................................................53
Lef Realism....................................................................................................................................................53
Postmodernism..............................................................................................................................................54
Consttutie Criminology................................................................................................................................54
Edgeaork Studies...........................................................................................................................................55
Cultural Criminology.......................................................................................................................................55
-narchism, -bolitonism, Peacemaking, and Restoratie Justce..................................................................56
Critcal Race Theory........................................................................................................................................56
Eialuaton of Nea Directons in Critcal Criminology.....................................................................................57
Summary and Conclusion...................................................................................................................................57
4
,Chapter 1: What is Criminology? The Study of Crime, Criminals, and
Victims in a Global Context
The purpose of this introductory chapter is to show how the changing geopolitical landscape and other
factors shape our renewned discussion of crime and its causes, as well as possible policy responses.
Six fundamental changes can be identified that demonstrate the changed nature of our world. These
changes all move toward increasing interconnection and interdependence. They are: (1) globalization,
(2) the communications revolution, (3) privatization and individualization, (4) the global spread of
disease, (5) changing perceptions of conflict and national security and (6) the internationalization of
terrorism.
Globalization
Globalization is the process whereby people react to issues in terms of reference points that transcend
their own locality, society or region. It is a process of unification in which differences in economic,
technological, political and social institutions are transformed from a local or national network into a
single system.
Related to globalization and global unemployment are two trends: a decline in collective
social action and increased economic polarization.
What is Criminology?
Criminology is mostly straightforwardly defined as the systematic study of the nature, extent, cause
and control of law-breaking behavior. Criminology is an applied social science in which
criminologists work to establish knowledge about crime and its control based on empirical research.
This research forms the basis for understanding, explanation, prediction, prevention and criminal
justice policy.
Although criminology’s subject matter is elastic, the categorical core components include: (1)
the definition and nature of crime as harm-causing behavior; (2) different types of criminal activity,
ranging from individual spontaneous offending to collective organized criminal enterprises; (3)
profiles of typical offenders and victims, including organizational and corporate law violations; (4)
statistical analysis of the extent, incidence, patterning and cost of crimes, including estimates of the
“dark figure” of hidden or unreported crime; and (5) analysis of crime causation.
Is Criminology Scientific?
Criminology requires that criminologists strictly adhere to the scientific method. What distinguishes
science from non-science is the insistence on testable hypotheses whose support or refutation through
empirical research forms the basis of what is accepted among scientific criminologists as valid
knowledge. Science, then, requires criminologists to build criminological knowledge from logically
interrelated, theoretically grounded, and empirically tested hypotheses that are subject to retesting.
These theoretical statements hold true as long as they are not falsified by further research.
Theory testing can be done using either qualitative or quantitative methods. Whether
criminology is a science has more to do with adhering to the responsibilities of criminology as a
profession.
Is Criminology a Discipline?
Each of the disciplines that influenced criminology contributes its own assumptions about human
nature and society, its own definitions and the role of law, its own preference of methods for the study
of crime, and its own analysis of crime causation with differing policy implications. This diversity
presents a major challenge to criminology’s disciplinary integrity. Criminology is best defined as
multidisciplinary.
What is Comparative and Global Criminology?
Comparative criminology has been defined as the systematic study of crime, law, and social control of
two or more cultures. In other words, it is the cross-cultural or cross-national study of both crime and
crime control, applying the comparative scientific method in criminology. Comparative analysis of
crime enables criminologists to overcome their ethnocentric tendencies and sharpen their
understanding of key questions.
5
,What is Victimology?
Victimology is the study of who become as victim, how victims are victimized, how much harm they
suffer, and their role in the criminal acts. It also looks at victims’ rights and their role in the criminal
justice system.
Criminology and Public Policy
Criminology is clearly also policy oriented. The criminal justice system that implements the law and
policy of governments itself is a significant course of employment and expenditure.
Summary and Conclusion
Criminology has evolved and will continue to expand to provide improved methods of study and more
comprehensive explanatory theories for understanding crime. The current direction is moving toward a
more inclusive and expansive criminology that considers crime as deprivation and harm. It also is
beginning, through comparative and global criminology, to move toward recognizing the
interconnectedness of people across countries and cultures, and so needs to be both integrated and
comparative in its approach.
6
, Chapter 3: Classical, Neoclassical, and Rational-Choice Theories
Classical theory did not strive to explain why people commit crime; rather, it was a strategy for
administering justice according to rational principles. It was based on assumptions about how people
living in seventeenth-century Europa began to reject the traditional idea that people were born into
social types with vastly different rights and privileges. Classical thinkers replaced this foundation of
the feudal caste system with the then-radical notion that people are individuals possessing equal rights.
A major transformation took place by the seventeenth century, and utilitarian philosophers
recognized the gross injustices of the legal and political system of the time. They saw much of the
problem as resulting from the extent of church and state power. Their resolution was legal and judicial
reform, which was consistent with emerging ideas about human rights and individual freedom, and
they sought philosophical justification for reform in the changing conception of humans as free-
thinking individuals. People were reinvented as rational and reasoning beings whose previously
disparaged individuality was now declared exceptional.
The Pre-classical Era
To fully grasp and value classical thought, it is necessary to understand the historical context in which
it developed and, in particular, how humans regarded each other before the advent of classical thought.
The Classical Reaction
The combination of both a rising landowning middle class as well as an escalating crime rate led the
philosophical leaders of the classical movement to demand double security for their newfound wealth.
They needed protection against the threat from the “dangerous” classes, symbolized by the growing
crime rates. They also coveted protection against threats from above, the aristocracy that still held the
reins of government power and legal repression. To be free to move up the class hierarchy, reformers
needed a new legal concept of humans that would limit the power of the old, aristocratically run state
and liberate the freedom, safety, and security of the individual to create and keep wealth. This
emerged in the concept of universal rights to liberty and freedom that would apply equally to all
people.
The primary focus of utilitarian philosophers was to transform arbitrary criminal justice into a
fair, equal and humanitarian system. They sought to do this by aligning the law and its enforcement
and administration with both logical and rational principles.
Cesare Beccaria
Perhaps the most influential protest writer and philosopher of the period was Cesare Beccaria. He
challenged the prevailing idea that humans are predestined to fill particular social statuses. Instead,
they are born as free, equal and rational individuals having both natural rights as well as natural
qualities. He believed that government was created through a social contract in which free, rational
individuals sacrificed part of their freedom to the state to maintain peace and security on behalf of the
common good. The government would use this power to protect individuals against those who would
choose to put their own interests above others’. Undeniably, part of the government’s role in
maintaining individual rights is to ensure that governing itself does not become excessively powerful
and that citizens’ voices are always represented.
Taken together, these assumptions led to the principle of “individual sovereignty”. This means
that individual rights have priority over the interests of society or the state. Beccaria insisted that
lawmaking and resolving legal ambiguities should be the exclusive domain of elected legislators who
represented the people. He argued that laws should always be designed to ensure “the greatest
happiness shared by the greatest number”.
He also altered the focus of what counted of crime: he saw offenses as wrongdoings against
fellow humans and thus against society itself. He believed that crimes offended society because they
broke the social contract, resulting in an infringement on others’ freedom.
He sought reforms that would guarantee justice. So, the only basis for conviction became the
facts of the case. This led to the principle of “the presumption of innocence”, designed to protect
individual rights against excessive state power or corrupt officials.
Beccaria also believed that individuals would be best protected through an adversarial trial in
which the accused had the right to be represented and was ensured equality of inquiry and equality
before the law. Moreover, this trial should be judged not by the government but by a jury of the
7
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