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Summary study guide end of year exam anatomy
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study guide anatomy and physiology 2nd year all lecture notes with diagrams
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List of lecture learning outcomesL2: Evolution and man
Recognise phylogenies and understand where we sit in the phylogenetic tree
Understand how phylogenies are arrived at
Understand the importance of fossils in evolution
Recognise how fossils can reveal the sequence of change in evolution
Recognise the conservation of the development programme across animals
Discuss the importance of HOX genes in fly and human development
Recognise the importance of evolution in understanding the human genome
Understand that we don’t have that many genes
Understand that evolution works with what it has – it involves tinkering.
L3: Homeostasis and physiological control
Explain the principles of homeostatic control, including negative feedback, sensors and
effectors, ‘integrating centres’
Negative: A change in the variable is compared against a set-point, causing a
response that tends to normalise that variable back to the set-point
Integrating centre: compare inputs from sensors against physiological set-point and
elicit a response
List physiological variables and explain ‘hierarchy of importance’
Oxygen and glucose supply to all cells of body
Optimal functioning of organs and tissues
Describe the role of the autonomic nervous system in physiological control
Neuronal integrating centres for physiological control are located in the brain
They control: Temperature control (acting on muscle & skin)
Osmolarity control (acting on kidneys)
Blood pressure/flow control (acting on heart & blood vessels)
Blood gas/ventilation control (acting on respiratory muscles/lungs
Describe the role of endocrine systems in physiological control
Release of hormones to control variables eg. Glucose through insulin and glycogen
and sex hormones.
Explain the role of paracrine homeostatic signalling in physiological control
Eg. Local control of blood flow
Negative feedback reflexes operating locally
Describe feed-forward and positive feedback control mechanisms
Feed-forward = Anticipation of a change brings about the response to that change
before the change can be detected by negative feedback sensors
Positive feedback =
A change in a variable trigger a response that causes further change in that variable
, L4: Epithelial cells
Describe the structural features of epithelial cells
Explain the functional significance of cell polarity
Epithelial cells exhibit polarity i.e. each surface has specialised morphology, and
therefore functional differences
Describe the classification (types) of epithelial cells
Ø Simple and stratified – based on the number of cell layers
Ø Squamous, cuboidal and columnar- based on structure
Ø Pseudostratified and transitional- additional types
Describe the functions of epithelial cells
• Protection: form a protective barrier
• Selective barrier
• Gland formation: form glands, secretes products
• Regulation: regulate exchange of molecules
• Absorption: e.g. epithelial lining of small intestine
L5: Structure and development of the cardiovascular system
Understand how the heart is patterned in the embryo
The heart develops in the embryo during post-conception weeks 3 – 8:
By day 15 of human embryonic development, cardiogenic precursors have formed a
crescent
By day 21 the two arms of the crescent fuse along the midline to give a linear heart
tube
This elongates and becomes patterned with the regions and chambers of the mature
heart
By day 28, after looping, these regions are disposed approximately in their eventual
positions
By day 50, formation of valves between, for example, the atria and ventricles
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