Rasmussen Pathophysiology Final Questions With Complete Solutions Rated A+

Define Pathophysiology - The study of the changes of normal mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions, either caused by disease or resulting from an abnormal syndrome. What does the study of pathophysiology include? - Contains etiology, which is the reason for the phenomena, pathogenesis, which is the development of a disease, clinical manifestations, which is the manifestation of the disease in signs, symptoms, and treatment. The difference between signs and symptoms/ objective versus subjective data. - Signs are objective data, it is physical data we can observe with our senses. Symptoms are subjective data, which is the information from the patient's POV. Epidemology - The branch of medicine which deals with the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases and other factors relating to health Review the different levels of disease prevention such as primary, secondary, and tertiary. - Primary prevention: prevention of disease by altering susceptibility or reducing exposure for susceptible individuals. Secondary prevention: early detection, screening, and management of the disease. Tertiary prevention: rehabilitative and supportive care and attempts to alleviate disability and restore effective functioning. Review the difference between homeostasis and allostasis. - Homeostasis: body maintaining stable equilibrium between interdependent elements. Allostasis: innate complexity of biological organism requires that set-points be readjusted for different circumstances; The difference is that allostasis' goal is to maintain homeostasis when the body is experiencing something abnormal. Sympathetic nervous system - In the sympathetic nervous system, the hypothalamus secretes the corticotrophin-releasing hormone, then the SNS and adrenal medulla secrete catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine). The SNS stress receptors elevate cardiac output, vasomotor changes, lipolysis, glycogenolysis, insulin suppression, increased respiration, and enhanced blood coagulation.Parasympathetic nervous system - In the parasympathetic system, the hypothalamus releases CRH, anterior pituitary secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone, then the adrenal cortex secretes corticosteroids (cortisol and aldosterone). In PNS stress responses, gluconeogenesis, protein catabolism, inhibition of glucose uptake, suppression of protein synthesis, stabilization of vascular activity, and immune response suppression. The PNS normalizes the reaction from the SNS. Extracellular fluid - The body fluid on the outside of the cell. Lies between the cells (interstitial compartment), in the blood vessels (vascular compartment) in defense connective tissue and bone, and in several minor compartments that are collectively known as transcellular fluids. Extracellular fluid in the vascular and interstitial compartments are relatively rich in sodium, chloride and bicarbonate ions. Intracellular fluids - Fluids located on the inside of the cell. The intracellular fluid is relatively rich in potassium and magnesium ions, inorganic and organic phosphates, and proteins. Intake (fluids enter the human body) - Orally by drinking or eating, intravenous intake, intake into the gastrointestinal tract, other body cavities, subcutaneous tissue, bone marrow, rectal intake, and sometimes lungs. Output (fluid excreted) - Urination, bowels, lungs, and skin is normal. Abnormal is through emesis, tubes in the gastrointestinal tract or other body cavities, hemorrage, drainage of fistula, wounds, or open areas of skin, and paransenthesis. Dehydration ( ECF volume deficit) - Caused by loss of fluid through abnormal routes or excess. Clinical manifestations include sudden weight loss, postural BP decrease with concurrent increased HR, flat neck veins when a patient is supine, prolonged small-vein filling time, prolonged capillary refill time, lightheadedness, dizziness, syncope and oliguria. Hypotonic hydration (ECF excess) - Causes include excess intravenous infusion of sodiumcontaining isotonic solutions, and renal retention of sodium and water. Clinical manifestations include sudden weight gain, edema, and circulatory overload. Edema - An excess of fluid in the interstitial compartment. Hypernatremia - high sodium, >145. Confusion, lethargy, seizures, coma, thirst, oliguria, and possible death.Hyponatremia - low sodium, <135. CNS dysfunction like malaise, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, headache to confusion, lethargy, seizures, and coma. Hyperkalemia - high potassium, >5.0. Intestinal cramping, diarrhea, skeletal muscle weakness, flaccid paralysis, and decrease duration and rate of rise cardiac action potentials and decreases conduction velocity in the heart. Hypokalemia - low potassium, <3.5. Abdominal distention, dimished bowel sounds, parlytic ileus, postural hypotension, skeletal muscle weakness, and flaccid paralysis. Hypercalcemia - high calcium, > 5.5. Decreased neuromuscular excitability, anorexia, nausea, emesis, constipation, fatigue, polyuria, muscle weakness, dimished reflexes, headaches, confusion, lethargy, personality changes, and cardiac dysrhythmias. Hypocalcemia - low calcium, <4.5. Increased neuromuscular excitability, positive Chvostek sign, Positive trousseu sign, paresthesia, muscle twitching and cramping, hyperactive reflexes, carpal spasm, pedal spasm, tetany, laryngospasm, seizures, and cardiac dysrhythmias. What hormones play a role in regulating electrolyte levels? - Antidiuretic hormone released from the posterior pituitary, aldosterone secreted from the adrenal cortex, and atrial natriuetic peptide produced by the heart. What are electrolyte reservoirs? What electrolytes are found stored in the bone? - The skeleton is an electrolyte reservoir. Calcium is found stored in the bones, which is activated by vitamin D. What are the cardinal signs of inflammation? - redness, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function Active immunity - A protected state owing to the body's immune response as a result of active infection or immunization. Requires memory B cells.Passive immunity - Involves the transfer of plasma containing preformed antibodies against a specific antigen from a protected or immunized person to an unprotected or non-immunized person. Immediate but temporary protection.